Who are Christians?

Footnotes

[1] 1:5 Or For as the sufferings of Christ abound for us, so also our comfort abounds through Christ
[2] 1:8 Or brothers and sisters. In New Testament usage, depending on the context, the plural Greek word adelphoi (translated “brothers”) may refer either to brothers or to brothers and sisters
[3] 1:12 Some manuscripts holiness
[4] 1:22 Or down payment
[5] 3:2 Some manuscripts your
[6] 3:3 Greek fleshly hearts
[7] 3:16 Greek he
[8] 3:17 Or this Lord
[9] 3:18 Or reflecting the glory of the Lord
[10] 3:18 Greek from glory to glory
[11] 4:1 Greek having this ministry as we have received mercy
[12] 4:2 Greek to walk in
[13] 4:5 Or slaves (for the contextual rendering of the Greek word doulos, see Preface)
[14] 4:16 Greek man
[15] 5:3 Some manuscripts putting it off
[16] 5:17 Or creature
[17] 5:19 Or God was in Christ, reconciling

Introduction to 2 Corinthians

Timeline

Author, Date, and Recipients

The apostle Paul wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia around A.D. 55/56. This was approximately a year after he wrote 1 Corinthians and a year before he wrote his letter to the Romans. This is the fourth letter he had written to the Corinthian church (in addition to 1 Corinthians, see the letters mentioned in 1 Cor. 5:9 and 2 Cor. 2:3–4).

Theme

The central theme of 2 Corinthians is the relationship between suffering and the power of the Spirit in Paul’s apostolic life, ministry, and message. Paul’s opponents had questioned his motives and his personal courage. They argued that he had suffered too much to be a Spirit-filled apostle of the risen Christ. But Paul argues that his suffering is the means God uses to reveal his glory (1:3–4, 11, 20).

Purpose

Paul vindicates his apostolic ministry in order to (1) strengthen the faithful majority in Corinth (primarily chs. 1–7); (2) encourage them to contribute to the financial needs of other believers, as an expression of their repentance (primarily chs. 8–9); and (3) offer the rebellious minority in Corinth another chance to repent before he returns to judge those still rejecting him and his message (primarily chs. 10–13).

Key Themes

Paul’s suffering imitates the cross of Christ. Those who reject him because he suffers are “false apostles” and “servants of Satan” (11:13–15).
Paul is a servant of the new covenant (3:6). His ministry and message of the cross mediates the Spirit of the living God and God’s righteousness to believers (3:3, 6–9; 5:14–15, 21).
Endurance through difficulty and Christlike behavior are made possible by the grace of God and are modeled by Paul himself. These qualities are the greatest display of God’s presence, power, and glory in this fallen world (1:12–14; 6:14–7:1; 12:7–10; 13:4).
The Spirit transforms believers into the image of God, which is seen in Christ. This new creation is characterized by God’s righteousness. Believers therefore embody the new creation of the new covenant by living for the sake of others. This is made possible because believers are reconciled with God through the cross (3:18; 5:15, 17–21).
Repentance expresses itself in holiness. This is a purity-producing love for God and his church and a unity-creating love for one’s neighbor (6:14–7:1; chs. 8–9).
Christ, as Savior, is also the universal Judge. He will judge all people according to their deeds. The Spirit transforms those in whom he dwells as a guarantee of the “eternal weight of glory” to come for believers at the resurrection (1:22; 3:18; 5:5, 9–11).

Outline

Paul’s Defense of His Ministry as an Apostle (1:1–7:16)
Paul’s Appeal to the Repentant Church Regarding the Collection (8:1–9:15)
Paul’s Appeal to the Rebellious Minority in Corinth (10:1–13:10)
Closing Greetings (13:11–14)

The Setting of 2 Corinthians

c. A.D. 55–56

Paul wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia a year or so after writing 1 Corinthians, during his third missionary journey. He had just finished his three-year ministry in Ephesus and was visiting the churches in Macedonia as he made his way to Corinth. In Macedonia he met Titus, who had returned from Corinth with news about the church there.

The Global Message of 2 Corinthians

Paul’s second letter to the Corinthians unlocks one of the great secrets of Christian life and ministry to believers all around the globe: God’s power is channeled through human weakness.

Second Corinthians and Redemptive History

Throughout the Old Testament we see an ever-heightening anticipation of the coming Messiah—a Davidic king who was expected to wipe out God’s enemies once and for all, restore God’s people, and reign forevermore (2 Sam. 7:12–16; Psalm 110; Jer. 33:14–18; Dan. 7:13–14; Zech. 6:12–13). Mingled in with these hope-filled prophecies, however, are perplexing predictions of a coming one who would suffer on behalf of God’s people (Psalm 22; Isa. 52:13–53:12).

At the pinnacle of world history, God brought about his long-promised restoration through the suffering of his own Son. God brought together these two strands—the triumphant king and the suffering victim—in one person.

The result is that believers all over the world are not required to qualify themselves with any kind of moral goodness or education or family background or anything else they might bring to the table. Rather, all it takes to qualify for God’s favor is to acknowledge that one does not qualify—and then look to Christ. As God’s triumphant Son, Jesus qualified for God’s favor in a way none of us ever can. Yet as God’s suffering servant he allowed himself to be treated as one who was disqualified. Consequently, all people around the world who trust in him, though condemned in themselves, can be counted as righteous in God’s sight.

Universal Themes in 2 Corinthians

Strength in weakness. This is the central message of 2 Corinthians. Throughout the letter Paul turns upside down our natural expectations of the way life works. Contrary to the way the world and our own human hearts naturally function, God takes what is low, despised, and weak to accomplish his purposes. Second Corinthians tells us that comfort comes through affliction (2 Cor. 1:3–7), sufficiency through insufficiency (3:1–6), life through death (4:7–15), blessing through suffering (6:3–10), salvation through grief (7:2–10), abundance through poverty (8:1–2, 9, 14), and boasting through hardship (11:16–30). Chapter 12 then gives the key principle: God’s “power is made perfect in weakness” (12:9). Weakness is not good in itself, yet it is God’s chosen means of displaying his grace and glory and power.

Reconciliation. One of the main reasons Paul wrote 2 Corinthians was to emphasize the importance of reconciliation among believers. Paul addresses the need for the Corinthians to reconcile with an estranged brother (2 Cor. 2:5–11) as well as with Paul himself (7:2–16). Indeed, to fail to reconcile is to be outwitted by Satan (2:11). As believers face divisions across the global church as well as broken relationships closer to home, Paul’s gentle exhortations to pursue restoration when possible are words worth remembering.

Servant leadership. In both letters to the church at Corinth but especially in 2 Corinthians, Paul gives a powerful example of what it means to lead the body of Christ. Above all, Christian leaders are to do what Christ himself did: pour out their lives in self-giving love for the sake of others. While Christians in no way atone for sin as Christ did, we do spread the knowledge of that atonement in the way he did—through sacrificial love (2 Cor. 4:10–12). “If we are afflicted, it is for your comfort and salvation” (1:6). “For what we proclaim is not ourselves, but Jesus Christ as Lord, with ourselves as your servants for Jesus’ sake” (4:5). Servant leadership is not optional for the global church. It is not for some regions of the world but not for others. It is the high calling of all who lead God’s people.

The Global Message of 2 Corinthians for Today

The letter of 2 Corinthians provides rich comfort and hope for believers today around the world.

God’s way of measuring success and significance is entirely different than the world’s way. In many places today the church is publicly marginalized because it is seen as silly, or it is persecuted because it is seen as threatening, or it is simply ignored because it is seen as irrelevant. Judged by the world’s standards of influence, the church seems powerless at such times. Viewed with heaven’s eyes, however, it is often precisely in such places of adversity that the Spirit is alive and well and the gospel is advancing (2 Thess. 3:1).

This is hope-giving, but also humbling. In those places around the world today where statistics would seem to indicate that the church is healthy, such health may be hollow. Where the numbers seem to indicate success in evangelism, who knows how many will turn out to have been “rocky ground” (see Mark 4:5)? Where significant financial resources have produced slick programs and impressive services, has dependence on the Holy Spirit been neglected? God will accomplish his work in the world, whether “by many or by few” (1 Sam. 14:6).

Paul’s second letter to the Corinthians is therefore both heartening and chastening. It encourages those who are struggling while cautioning those whose lives may be outwardly impressive. As the global church continues to pursue our sacred calling to make disciples of all nations (Matt. 28:19), may we do so in the glad knowledge that natural eloquence, impressive resumes, and sparkling educations are not required for the Spirit to move in power. Such things, while good, may even get in the way. All that is needed is sincere openness to the Lord who in Christ became weak himself (2 Cor. 13:4) so that weak sinners can know true strength, by his grace.

2 Corinthians Fact #3: Treasure in jars of clay

Fact: Treasure in jars of clay

Treasure in jars of clay (4:7). Paul used this word picture to contrast believers’ knowledge of the gospel (“treasure”) with the hardships and weaknesses believers experience daily (see Ps. 30:12; Isa. 30:14).

2 Corinthians Fact #1: Amen

Fact: Amen

Amen is the Greek form of the Hebrew word meaning “to confirm.” The word is used throughout the Bible to affirm the truth of important statements (see 1:20). Paul often ends his letters with “Amen” (see Rom. 16:27), but here in 2 Corinthians he says it near the beginning of his letter.

2 Corinthians Fact #2: A new covenant

Fact: A new covenant

A new covenant. God wrote the first covenant, the law, on stone tablets (Ex. 24:12). The new covenant is “written” on hearts (2 Cor. 3:2–3; see Jer. 31:31–34; Ezek. 11:19). In other words, the Spirit changes believers’ hearts to enable them to obey God.

2 Corinthians Fact #4: What does it mean to be “reconciled”?

Fact: What does it mean to be “reconciled”?

What does it mean to be “reconciled”? To be reconciled means to be reunited with someone from whom one has been alienated. Forgiveness can lead to restored fellowship. Sin leads to alienation from God, but through Christ we can be forgiven and reconciled to God. “Be reconciled to God” (5:20) is thus a wonderful invitation to the gospel (see also Rom. 5:11).

The Setting of 2 Corinthians

c. A.D. 55–56

New Testament Timeline

The following chart provides a detailed New Testament timeline. Most of the dates can be determined precisely by correlating biblical events with extensive historical documents and archaeological evidence. Dates with an asterisk denote approximate or alternative dates. The extensive external confirmation of New Testament dates and events encourages great confidence in the truth and historicity of both the Old and New Testaments.

5 B.C.*	Jesus is born in Bethlehem.
4 B.C.	Jesus’ family flees to Egypt to escape from Herod’s plan to kill Jesus (Matt. 2:13–18); Herod dies; Judas (of Sepphoris) and others rebel, requiring the Syrian Governor Varus to intervene throughout Palestine; Sepphoris, a city four miles from Nazareth, is destroyed by Roman soldiers; Judea, Samaria, and Idumea are given to Herod’s son, Archelaus; Galilee and Perea are given to his son Antipas; Jesus’ family, after returning from Egypt, resides in Nazareth (Matt. 2:19–23), a small village in southern Galilee.
A.D. 6	Archelaus is exiled for incompetence; Judea becomes a Roman province; Judas the Galilean (of Gamla) leads a revolt against the tax census; the governor of Syria, Quirinius (A.D. 6–7), appoints Annas high priest (6–15).
8*	Jesus (age 12) interacts with the teachers in the temple (Luke 2:41–50).
8*–28/30	Jesus works as a carpenter in Nazareth (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3) and probably in neighboring villages and Sepphoris, which was being rebuilt.
28–29*	John the Baptist begins his ministry around the Jordan River (John 1:19).
28–30*	Jesus begins his ministry in Judea, but soon focuses his efforts in Galilee. In Jerusalem, Pharisees (like Gamaliel) train disciples (like Paul) in their tradition. They send a delegation to Galilee, but the delegation rejects Jesus’ teaching. In Alexandria, Philo (20 B.C.–A.D. 50) attempts to unify Greek philosophy with Hebrew Scripture.
33 (or 30)	Jesus returns to Judea, is crucified, and resurrected. James the brother of Jesus becomes a believer after witnessing the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor. 15:7; Acts 12:17). Jesus ascends to the Father’s right hand (Acts 1). Jesus’ first followers receive the Holy Spirit at Pentecost and begin to proclaim the gospel (Acts 2).
33/34*	Paul witnesses the resurrected Lord on the way to Damascus and is commissioned as an apostle to the nations (Acts 9; Gal. 1:15–16).
34–37	Paul ministers in Damascus and Arabia (Acts 9:19–22; 26:20; Gal. 1:16–18).
36	Pilate loses his position for incompetence.
36/37*	Paul meets with Peter in Jerusalem (Acts 9:26–30; Gal. 1:18).
37–45	Paul ministers in Syria, Tarsus, and Cilicia (Acts 9:30; Gal. 1:21).
38*	Peter witnesses to Cornelius (Acts 10).
39	Antipas is exiled.
40–45*	James writes his letter to believers outside Palestine (see James 1:1).
41–44	Agrippa, Herod the Great’s grandson, rules Palestine; he kills James the brother of John (Acts 12:2) and imprisons Peter (Acts 12:3).
42–44	Paul receives his “thorn in the flesh” (2 Cor. 12:7).
44	Peter leaves Jerusalem; Agrippa is killed by an “angel of the Lord” (Acts 12:23).
44–46	Theudas persuades many Jews to sell their possessions and follow him into the wilderness where he claimed he would miraculously divide the Jordan River; Roman procurator Fadus dispatches his cavalry and beheads the would-be messiah.
44–47*	Paul’s Second Visit to Jerusalem; time of famine (Acts 11:27–30; Gal. 2:1–10).
46–47	Paul’s First Missionary Journey (with Barnabas) from Antioch to Cyprus, Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, and Lystra (Acts 13:4–14:26).
46–48	Roman procurator Tiberius Alexander crucifies two sons (Jacob and Simon) of Judas the Galilean.
48*	Paul writes Galatians, perhaps from Antioch (see Acts 14:26–28).
48–49*	Paul and Peter return to Jerusalem for the Apostolic Council, which, with the assistance of James, frees Gentile believers from the requirement of circumcision in opposition to Pharisaic believers (Acts 15:1–29); Paul and Barnabas return to Antioch (Acts 15:30) but split over a dispute about John Mark (Acts 15:36–40).
48/49–51*	Paul’s Second Missionary Journey (with Silas) from Antioch to Syria, Cilicia, southern Galatia, Macedonia, notably Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea; and then on to Achaia, notably Athens and Corinth (Acts 15:36–18:22).
49	Claudius expels Jews from Rome because of conflicts about Jesus (Acts 18:2); Paul befriends two refugees, Priscilla and Aquila, in Corinth (Acts 18:2–3).
49–51*	Paul writes 1–2 Thessalonians from Corinth (Acts 18:1, 11; also compare Acts 18:5 with 1 Thess. 1:8).
51	Paul appears before Gallio, proconsul of Achaia (Acts 18:12–17).
50–54*	Peter comes to Rome.
52–57*	Paul’s Third Missionary Journey from Antioch to Galatia, Phrygia, Ephesus, Macedonia, Greece (Acts 18:23–21:17).
52–55	Paul ministers in Ephesus (Acts 19:1–20).
53–55*	Mark writes his Gospel, containing Peter’s memories of Jesus; perhaps within a decade, Matthew publishes his Gospel, which relies on Mark and other sources. Paul writes 1 Corinthians from Ephesus (Acts 19:10).

54	Claudius dies (edict exiling Jews repealed); Priscilla and Aquila return to Rome and host a church in their home (see Rom. 16:3–5).
54–68	Nero reigns.
55–56*	Paul writes 2 Corinthians from Macedonia (Acts 20:1, 3; 2 Cor. 1:16; 2:13; 7:5; 8:1; 9:2, 4; see 1 Cor. 16:5).
57*	Paul winters in Corinth and writes Romans (Acts 20:3; see Rom. 16:1–2; also see Rom. 16:23 with 1 Cor. 1:14); travels to Jerusalem (Acts 21:1–16), visits with James the brother of Jesus (Acts 21:17–26), and is arrested (Acts 21:27–36; 22:22–29).
57–59	Paul is imprisoned and transferred to Caesarea (Acts 23:23–24, 33–34).
60	Paul begins voyage to Rome (Acts 27:1–2); he is shipwrecked for three months on the island of Malta (Acts 27:39–28:10).
60–70*	Letter to the Hebrews is written.
62	James the brother of the Lord is executed by the Sadducean high priest Ananus.
62–63*	Peter writes his first letter (1 Peter) from Rome (1 Pet. 5:13).
62*	Paul arrives in Rome and remains under house arrest (Acts 28:16–31); he writes Ephesians (see verses for Colossians), Philippians (Phil. 1:7, 13, 17; 4:22), Colossians (Col. 4:3, 10, 18; see Acts 27:2 with Col. 4:10), Philemon (see Philem. 23 with Col. 1:7; Philem. 2 with Col. 4:17; Philem. 24 with Col. 4:10; also see Col. 4:9). Luke, Paul’s physician and companion (see Col. 4:14), writes Luke and Acts.
62–64	Paul is released, extends his mission (probably reaching Spain), writes 1 Timothy from Macedonia (see 1 Tim. 1:3) and Titus from Nicopolis (Titus 3:12); he is rearrested in Rome (2 Tim. 1:16–17).
63–64	Work on the temple complex is completed.
64 (July 19)	Fire in Rome; Nero blames and kills many Christians.
64–67*	Peter writes his second letter ( 2 Peter). Jude writes his letter. Paul writes 2 Timothy (see 2 Tim. 4:6–8). Paul and Peter are martyred in Rome.
66	First Jewish-Roman War begins with a riot between Greeks and Jews at Caesarea; Roman procurator Gesius Florus (A.D. 64–66) is murdered and a Roman garrison wiped out; Menahem, son or grandson of Judas the Galilean, murders the high priest Ananias and seizes control of the temple; Nero dispatches Vespasian with three legions.
67*	Romans destroy the Qumran community, who beforehand hid the so-called Dead Sea Scrolls in nearby caves; the church in Jerusalem flees to Pella (Matt. 24:15–16; Mark 13:14; Luke 21:20–22); John migrates to Ephesus with Mary, Jesus’ mother.
68	Nero commits suicide; year of the three emperors.
69	Rebellion quelled in Galilee and Samaria; Vespasian summoned back to Rome to become emperor.
70 (Aug. 30)	Titus, Vespasian’s son, after a five-month siege of Jerusalem, destroys the temple after desecrating it; the temple’s menorah, Torah, and veil are removed and later put on display in a victory parade in Rome; the influence of the Sadducees ends; the Pharisee Johanan ben Zakkai escapes and convinces the Romans to allow him and others to settle in Jamnia, where they found a school.
73 (May 2)*	Before Roman general Silva breaches the fortress atop Masada following a two-year siege, 936 Jewish rebels commit suicide.
75	Titus has an affair with the Jewish princess Berenice, sister of Agrippa II (Acts 25:13, 23), whom he later abandons because of the scandal.
77	Pliny the Elder writes Natural History.
77–78	Josephus publishes Jewish War in Rome.
79	Pompeii and Herculaneum are destroyed by eruption of Vesuvius; Pliny the Elder dies attempting to investigate.
81	The Arch of Titus, celebrating his destruction of the temple, is erected in Rome.
81–96	Domitian, Titus’s brother, persecutes Christians among the Roman nobility, including his own relatives Clemens and Domitilla.
85–95*	John writes his letters (1–3 John), probably in Ephesus.
89–95*	John writes his Gospel, probably in Ephesus.
93–94	Josephus publishes Jewish Antiquities in Rome.
94	Domitian exiles philosophers from Rome.
95*	Amidst persecution, Clement, a leader in the Roman church, writes his Letter to the Corinthians (1 Clement) appealing for peace between the young men and elders.
95–96*	Exiled by Domitian to Patmos, John writes Revelation (Rev. 1:9).
96–98	Nerva, the first of five “good” emperors, ends official persecution.

* denotes approximate date; / signifies either/or

Major Events in the Life of the Apostle Paul

A.D. 5–10?	Born in Tarsus, an Israelite from the tribe of Benjamin and a Roman citizen (Acts 22:3, 28; Rom. 11:1; Phil. 3:5); raised in either Jerusalem (Acts 22:3?) or Tarsus
15–20?	Trained as a Pharisee by Gamaliel I (Acts 22:3; 26:5; Gal. 1:14; Phil. 3:5–6)
30/33?	Death, resurrection of Christ
31–34	Present at Stephen’s stoning; persecuted Christians (Acts 7:58; 8:1; 22:4a; 26:9–11; 1 Cor. 15:9; Gal. 1:13; Phil. 3:6)
33/34*	Converted, called, and commissioned on the way to Damascus (Acts 9:1–19; 22:6–11; 26:12–18; Gal. 1:15–16)
33/34–36/37	Stays in Damascus a short time (Acts 9:19b); leaves for Arabia (2 Cor. 11:32; Gal. 1:17); returns to Damascus (Gal. 1:17; Acts 9:20–22?); escapes through city wall to avoid arrest (Acts 9:23–24; 2 Cor. 11:32–33)
36/37*	Meets with Peter, sees James, in Jerusalem (Acts 9:26–30; Gal. 1:18) Hellenists seek to kill him; flees to Tarsus (Acts 9:28–30; Gal. 1:21)
37–45	Ministers in Syria/Cilicia (2 Cor. 11:22–27?)
44–47*	Ministers with Barnabas in Antioch (Acts 11:25–26) Second Visit to Jerusalem; time of famine (Acts 11:27–30; Gal. 2:1–10)
46–47	First Missionary Journey (Acts 13:4–14:26): 1.5 years?
48*	With Barnabas, spends “no little time” in Antioch (Acts 14:28; Gal. 2:11–14); writes Galatians
48–49*	Returns to Jerusalem for the apostolic council (Acts 15); Paul and Barnabas return to Antioch (Acts 15:30–33), but dispute over John Mark causes them to part ways (Acts 15:36–41)
48/49–51*	Second Missionary Journey (Acts 15:36–18:22): 2.5 years?
49	Paul and Silas travel to southern Galatia through Asia Minor, on to Macedonia (Philippi [1 Thess. 2:2]); Thessalonica [1 Thess. 2:2; Phil. 4:15–16]; and Berea [Acts 17:10–15]), and then to Achaia (Athens [1 Thess. 3:1] and Corinth [2 Cor. 11:7–9])
49–51*	Spends 1.5 years in Corinth (Acts 18:11); appears before Gallio (Acts 18:12–17); writes 1 and 2 Thessalonians
51	Returns to Jerusalem? (Acts 18:22)
52–57*	Third Missionary Journey (Acts 18:23–21:17): 5 years?
52	Travels to Antioch, spends “some time”; travels through Galatia and Phrygia (Acts 18:23)
52–55	Arrives in Ephesus (Acts 19:1; 1 Cor. 16:8); ministers for three years (Acts 20:31) and writes 1 Corinthians; makes brief, “painful visit” to Corinth (2 Cor. 2:1), then returns to Ephesus and writes “severe letter” (now lost) to Corinth (2 Cor. 2:3–4; 7:8–16)
55–56*	Travels north to Macedonia, meets Titus (Acts 20:1; 2 Cor. 2:12–13); writes 2 Corinthians
57*	Winters in Corinth (Acts 20:2–3; 2 Cor. 9:4), writes to the Romans from Corinth; travels to Jerusalem; is arrested (Acts 21:27–36)
57–59	Transferred as prisoner to Caesarea, stays for two years (Acts 24:27)
60*	Voyage to Rome; shipwrecked, spends three months on Malta (Acts 28:11); finally arrives in Rome
62*	Under house-arrest in Rome (Acts 28:30–31), writes Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Philemon
62–67	Released from house-arrest in Rome, travels to Spain (?), writes 1 Timothy (from Macedonia?) and Titus (from Nicopolis); is rearrested, writes 2 Timothy from Rome, is martyred

* denotes approximate date; / signifies either/or

The Epistles

Book	Author	Date	Recipients	Place of Writing
James	James	40–45	Jewish Christians in or near Palestine	Jerusalem?
Galatians	Paul	48	South Galatian churches	Syrian Antioch
1 Thessalonians	Paul	49–51	Church in Thessalonica	Corinth
2 Thessalonians	Paul	49–51	Church in Thessalonica	Corinth
1 Corinthians	Paul	53–55	Church in Corinth	Ephesus
2 Corinthians	Paul	55–56	Church in Corinth	Macedonia
Romans	Paul	57	Church in Rome	Corinth
Philippians	Paul	62	Church in Philippi	Rome
Colossians	Paul	62	Church in Colossae	Rome
Philemon	Paul	62	Philemon	Rome
Ephesians	Paul	62	Churches in Asia Minor (circular letter?)	Rome
1 Timothy	Paul	62–64	Timothy	Macedonia?
Titus	Paul	62–64	Titus	Nicopolis
1 Peter	Peter	62–63	Churches in Roman provinces in Asia Minor	Rome
2 Peter	Peter	64–67	Churches in Roman provinces in Asia Minor?	Rome
2 Timothy	Paul	64–67	Timothy	Rome
Jude	Jude	Mid–60s	Jewish Christians in Egypt? Asia Minor? Antioch?	Unknown
Hebrews	Unknown	60–70	Jewish Christians in Rome or in or near Palestine	Unknown
1 John	John	85–95	Churches near Ephesus?	Ephesus
2 John	John	85–95	Church or churches near Ephesus	Ephesus
3 John	John	85–95	Gaius	Ephesus

The Believer’s Apparent (Temporal) Defeat and Actual (Spiritual) Victory

The Believer’s Apparent (Temporal) Defeat	The Believer’s Actual (Spiritual) Victory
For we were so utterly burdened beyond our strength that we despaired of life itself. Indeed, we felt that we had received the sentence of death (1:8–9).	He delivered us from such a deadly peril, and he will deliver us. On him we have set our hope that he will deliver us again (1:10).
When I came to Troas to preach the gospel of Christ . . . my spirit was not at rest . . . (2:12–13).	But thanks be to God, who in Christ always leads us in triumphal procession . . . (2:14).
We are afflicted in every way, but not crushed; perplexed, but not driven to despair; persecuted, but not forsaken; struck down, but not destroyed; always carrying in the body the death of Jesus, so that the life of Jesus may also be manifested in our bodies (4:8–10).	Though our outer self is wasting away, our inner self is being renewed day by day. For this light momentary affliction is preparing for us an eternal weight of glory beyond all comparison, as we look not to the things that are seen but to the things that are unseen (4:16–18).
A thorn was given me in the flesh, a messenger of Satan to harass me, to keep me from becoming conceited (12:7).	But [the Lord] said to me, “My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness” (12:9).

The Sufficiency of God in 2 Corinthians

2:16	Who is sufficient for these things?
3:5	Not that we are sufficient in ourselves . . .
3:5	but our sufficiency is from God
12:9	“My grace is sufficient for you . . .”

Study Notes

2 Cor. 1:1 apostle of Christ Jesus. See note on Rom. 1:1. The Greek word for “apostle” comes from the verb “to send out.” It was used in the Greek OT for persons who had the authority of those who sent them (Ex. 3:10; Judg. 6:8; Jer. 1:7). saints. Literally, “holy” or “dedicated ones.” All who belong to God are saints (see 1 Cor. 3:16–17; 5:1–6:20; 2 Cor. 6:14–7:1). Corinth was 46 miles (74 km) west of Athens. A Roman colony, it was the most influential city of the province of Achaia.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 1:2 Grace. A wordplay on the normal Greek greeting. Whereas the Greeks said, “Hello” (Greek charein), the Christians said, “Grace” (Greek charis). peace. The profound well-being that comes from resting in God’s sovereignty and mercy (see note on John 14:27).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 1:3 God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. These titles describe Yahweh’s relationship to Jesus and Jesus’ relationship to his people.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 1:4 us . . . our. Most of the plural first-person pronouns in 2 Corinthians (“we,” “us,” “our”) seem to refer to Paul himself (see v. 8; 7:5–7). At times these plurals may also include Timothy (1:1), other ministry partners (vv. 19, 21), or Christians generally (5:1–10). In this verse, Paul probably uses the plural to indicate that he represents both the apostolic office and believers generally.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 1:5 Christ’s sufferings refers not to Jesus’ unique atonement for sin (Rom. 5:8–10) but to Paul’s sufferings in imitation of Christ. Paul endured these sufferings in faithfulness to God and for the sake of God’s people.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 1:6–7 it is for your comfort. The opponents maintained that Paul’s sufferings disqualified him as an apostle. Paul maintains that God uses his sufferings to strengthen other believers.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 1:8 Asia may refer back to Paul’s suffering in Ephesus (1 Cor. 15:32). That Paul was burdened and despaired in Asia points forward to 2 Cor. 4:8, 17 (see note on 4:17–18).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 1:10 Biblical hope is absolute confidence in God’s promises for the future (v. 10) based on his faithfulness in the past (v. 9).

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The Believer’s Apparent (Temporal) Defeat and Actual (Spiritual) Victory

The Believer’s Apparent (Temporal) Defeat	The Believer’s Actual (Spiritual) Victory
For we were so utterly burdened beyond our strength that we despaired of life itself. Indeed, we felt that we had received the sentence of death (1:8–9).	He delivered us from such a deadly peril, and he will deliver us. On him we have set our hope that he will deliver us again (1:10).
When I came to Troas to preach the gospel of Christ . . . my spirit was not at rest . . . (2:12–13).	But thanks be to God, who in Christ always leads us in triumphal procession . . . (2:14).
We are afflicted in every way, but not crushed; perplexed, but not driven to despair; persecuted, but not forsaken; struck down, but not destroyed; always carrying in the body the death of Jesus, so that the life of Jesus may also be manifested in our bodies (4:8–10).	Though our outer self is wasting away, our inner self is being renewed day by day. For this light momentary affliction is preparing for us an eternal weight of glory beyond all comparison, as we look not to the things that are seen but to the things that are unseen (4:16–18).
A thorn was given me in the flesh, a messenger of Satan to harass me, to keep me from becoming conceited (12:7).	But [the Lord] said to me, “My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness” (12:9).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 1:3–11 Paul offers praise to God as he introduces the main themes to follow.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 1:14 The day of our Lord Jesus assigns to Jesus the divine and messianic role of judge that God the Father holds on “the day of the LORD” (e.g., Isa. 13:9; Joel 1–3; Zechariah 12–14; see 1 Cor. 5:5; 2 Pet. 3:10).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 1:15–16 first . . . on my way to Macedonia, and to come back to you from Macedonia . . . on my way to Judea. Originally, Paul had planned to travel from Ephesus through Macedonia to Corinth (see map) on his way back to Jerusalem (1 Cor. 16:5–9). In the meantime, he sent Timothy to visit the Corinthians (Acts 19:22; 1 Cor. 16:10–11). When Timothy arrived in Corinth, he found the church in turmoil. When Paul learned of this he decided to go immediately to Corinth to resolve the issues, then travel on to Macedonia before returning to Corinth for a second visit on his way to Jerusalem. a second experience of grace. Some think this refers to a second opportunity to contribute to the collection for the believers in Jerusalem (see 2 Corinthians 8–9). Contributing to others’ needs is called “grace” because it is made possible by God’s grace in the lives of those who give (8:1, 4, 6–9, 19; 9:6–14). Others see this as a reference to the added blessings from God that would come from another visit by Paul.

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New Testament Timeline

5 B.C.*	Jesus is born in Bethlehem.
4 B.C.	Jesus’ family flees to Egypt to escape from Herod’s plan to kill Jesus (Matt. 2:13–18); Herod dies; Judas (of Sepphoris) and others rebel, requiring the Syrian Governor Varus to intervene throughout Palestine; Sepphoris, a city four miles from Nazareth, is destroyed by Roman soldiers; Judea, Samaria, and Idumea are given to Herod’s son, Archelaus; Galilee and Perea are given to his son Antipas; Jesus’ family, after returning from Egypt, resides in Nazareth (Matt. 2:19–23), a small village in southern Galilee.
A.D. 6	Archelaus is exiled for incompetence; Judea becomes a Roman province; Judas the Galilean (of Gamla) leads a revolt against the tax census; the governor of Syria, Quirinius (A.D. 6–7), appoints Annas high priest (6–15).
8*	Jesus (age 12) interacts with the teachers in the temple (Luke 2:41–50).
8*–28/30	Jesus works as a carpenter in Nazareth (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3) and probably in neighboring villages and Sepphoris, which was being rebuilt.
28–29*	John the Baptist begins his ministry around the Jordan River (John 1:19).
28–30*	Jesus begins his ministry in Judea, but soon focuses his efforts in Galilee. In Jerusalem, Pharisees (like Gamaliel) train disciples (like Paul) in their tradition. They send a delegation to Galilee, but the delegation rejects Jesus’ teaching. In Alexandria, Philo (20 B.C.–A.D. 50) attempts to unify Greek philosophy with Hebrew Scripture.
33 (or 30)	Jesus returns to Judea, is crucified, and resurrected. James the brother of Jesus becomes a believer after witnessing the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor. 15:7; Acts 12:17). Jesus ascends to the Father’s right hand (Acts 1). Jesus’ first followers receive the Holy Spirit at Pentecost and begin to proclaim the gospel (Acts 2).
33/34*	Paul witnesses the resurrected Lord on the way to Damascus and is commissioned as an apostle to the nations (Acts 9; Gal. 1:15–16).
34–37	Paul ministers in Damascus and Arabia (Acts 9:19–22; 26:20; Gal. 1:16–18).
36	Pilate loses his position for incompetence.
36/37*	Paul meets with Peter in Jerusalem (Acts 9:26–30; Gal. 1:18).
37–45	Paul ministers in Syria, Tarsus, and Cilicia (Acts 9:30; Gal. 1:21).
38*	Peter witnesses to Cornelius (Acts 10).
39	Antipas is exiled.
40–45*	James writes his letter to believers outside Palestine (see James 1:1).
41–44	Agrippa, Herod the Great’s grandson, rules Palestine; he kills James the brother of John (Acts 12:2) and imprisons Peter (Acts 12:3).
42–44	Paul receives his “thorn in the flesh” (2 Cor. 12:7).
44	Peter leaves Jerusalem; Agrippa is killed by an “angel of the Lord” (Acts 12:23).
44–46	Theudas persuades many Jews to sell their possessions and follow him into the wilderness where he claimed he would miraculously divide the Jordan River; Roman procurator Fadus dispatches his cavalry and beheads the would-be messiah.
44–47*	Paul’s Second Visit to Jerusalem; time of famine (Acts 11:27–30; Gal. 2:1–10).
46–47	Paul’s First Missionary Journey (with Barnabas) from Antioch to Cyprus, Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, and Lystra (Acts 13:4–14:26).
46–48	Roman procurator Tiberius Alexander crucifies two sons (Jacob and Simon) of Judas the Galilean.
48*	Paul writes Galatians, perhaps from Antioch (see Acts 14:26–28).
48–49*	Paul and Peter return to Jerusalem for the Apostolic Council, which, with the assistance of James, frees Gentile believers from the requirement of circumcision in opposition to Pharisaic believers (Acts 15:1–29); Paul and Barnabas return to Antioch (Acts 15:30) but split over a dispute about John Mark (Acts 15:36–40).
48/49–51*	Paul’s Second Missionary Journey (with Silas) from Antioch to Syria, Cilicia, southern Galatia, Macedonia, notably Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea; and then on to Achaia, notably Athens and Corinth (Acts 15:36–18:22).
49	Claudius expels Jews from Rome because of conflicts about Jesus (Acts 18:2); Paul befriends two refugees, Priscilla and Aquila, in Corinth (Acts 18:2–3).
49–51*	Paul writes 1–2 Thessalonians from Corinth (Acts 18:1, 11; also compare Acts 18:5 with 1 Thess. 1:8).
51	Paul appears before Gallio, proconsul of Achaia (Acts 18:12–17).
50–54*	Peter comes to Rome.
52–57*	Paul’s Third Missionary Journey from Antioch to Galatia, Phrygia, Ephesus, Macedonia, Greece (Acts 18:23–21:17).
52–55	Paul ministers in Ephesus (Acts 19:1–20).
53–55*	Mark writes his Gospel, containing Peter’s memories of Jesus; perhaps within a decade, Matthew publishes his Gospel, which relies on Mark and other sources. Paul writes 1 Corinthians from Ephesus (Acts 19:10).

54	Claudius dies (edict exiling Jews repealed); Priscilla and Aquila return to Rome and host a church in their home (see Rom. 16:3–5).
54–68	Nero reigns.
55–56*	Paul writes 2 Corinthians from Macedonia (Acts 20:1, 3; 2 Cor. 1:16; 2:13; 7:5; 8:1; 9:2, 4; see 1 Cor. 16:5).
57*	Paul winters in Corinth and writes Romans (Acts 20:3; see Rom. 16:1–2; also see Rom. 16:23 with 1 Cor. 1:14); travels to Jerusalem (Acts 21:1–16), visits with James the brother of Jesus (Acts 21:17–26), and is arrested (Acts 21:27–36; 22:22–29).
57–59	Paul is imprisoned and transferred to Caesarea (Acts 23:23–24, 33–34).
60	Paul begins voyage to Rome (Acts 27:1–2); he is shipwrecked for three months on the island of Malta (Acts 27:39–28:10).
60–70*	Letter to the Hebrews is written.
62	James the brother of the Lord is executed by the Sadducean high priest Ananus.
62–63*	Peter writes his first letter (1 Peter) from Rome (1 Pet. 5:13).
62*	Paul arrives in Rome and remains under house arrest (Acts 28:16–31); he writes Ephesians (see verses for Colossians), Philippians (Phil. 1:7, 13, 17; 4:22), Colossians (Col. 4:3, 10, 18; see Acts 27:2 with Col. 4:10), Philemon (see Philem. 23 with Col. 1:7; Philem. 2 with Col. 4:17; Philem. 24 with Col. 4:10; also see Col. 4:9). Luke, Paul’s physician and companion (see Col. 4:14), writes Luke and Acts.
62–64	Paul is released, extends his mission (probably reaching Spain), writes 1 Timothy from Macedonia (see 1 Tim. 1:3) and Titus from Nicopolis (Titus 3:12); he is rearrested in Rome (2 Tim. 1:16–17).
63–64	Work on the temple complex is completed.
64 (July 19)	Fire in Rome; Nero blames and kills many Christians.
64–67*	Peter writes his second letter ( 2 Peter). Jude writes his letter. Paul writes 2 Timothy (see 2 Tim. 4:6–8). Paul and Peter are martyred in Rome.
66	First Jewish-Roman War begins with a riot between Greeks and Jews at Caesarea; Roman procurator Gesius Florus (A.D. 64–66) is murdered and a Roman garrison wiped out; Menahem, son or grandson of Judas the Galilean, murders the high priest Ananias and seizes control of the temple; Nero dispatches Vespasian with three legions.
67*	Romans destroy the Qumran community, who beforehand hid the so-called Dead Sea Scrolls in nearby caves; the church in Jerusalem flees to Pella (Matt. 24:15–16; Mark 13:14; Luke 21:20–22); John migrates to Ephesus with Mary, Jesus’ mother.
68	Nero commits suicide; year of the three emperors.
69	Rebellion quelled in Galilee and Samaria; Vespasian summoned back to Rome to become emperor.
70 (Aug. 30)	Titus, Vespasian’s son, after a five-month siege of Jerusalem, destroys the temple after desecrating it; the temple’s menorah, Torah, and veil are removed and later put on display in a victory parade in Rome; the influence of the Sadducees ends; the Pharisee Johanan ben Zakkai escapes and convinces the Romans to allow him and others to settle in Jamnia, where they found a school.
73 (May 2)*	Before Roman general Silva breaches the fortress atop Masada following a two-year siege, 936 Jewish rebels commit suicide.
75	Titus has an affair with the Jewish princess Berenice, sister of Agrippa II (Acts 25:13, 23), whom he later abandons because of the scandal.
77	Pliny the Elder writes Natural History.
77–78	Josephus publishes Jewish War in Rome.
79	Pompeii and Herculaneum are destroyed by eruption of Vesuvius; Pliny the Elder dies attempting to investigate.
81	The Arch of Titus, celebrating his destruction of the temple, is erected in Rome.
81–96	Domitian, Titus’s brother, persecutes Christians among the Roman nobility, including his own relatives Clemens and Domitilla.
85–95*	John writes his letters (1–3 John), probably in Ephesus.
89–95*	John writes his Gospel, probably in Ephesus.
93–94	Josephus publishes Jewish Antiquities in Rome.
94	Domitian exiles philosophers from Rome.
95*	Amidst persecution, Clement, a leader in the Roman church, writes his Letter to the Corinthians (1 Clement) appealing for peace between the young men and elders.
95–96*	Exiled by Domitian to Patmos, John writes Revelation (Rev. 1:9).
96–98	Nerva, the first of five “good” emperors, ends official persecution.

* denotes approximate date; / signifies either/or

The Setting of 2 Corinthians

c. A.D. 55–56

Study Notes

2 Cor. 1:18–19 Paul can affirm that his word . . . was not Yes and No, but in him (Christ) it is always Yes because his change of plan was within God’s will.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 1:20 God’s promises find their fulfillment in Christ. Thus the OT Scriptures should be read as pointing to Christ (see the Overview of the Bible). Paul expresses his agreement—that is, his Amen. He confirms what God has done through Christ (through him) by preaching Christ (v. 19) and by behaving in a Christlike way toward the Corinthians. This included changing his plans in order to minister to them.

Overview of the Bible

How does the Bible as a whole fit together? The events recorded in the Bible took place over a span of thousands of years and in several different cultural settings. What is their unifying thread?

One unifying thread in the Bible is its divine authorship. Every book of the Bible is God’s word. The events recorded in the Bible are there because God wanted them to be recorded, and he had them recorded with his people and their instruction in mind: “For whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that through endurance and through the encouragement of the Scriptures we might have hope” (Rom. 15:4).

God’s Plan for History

God also has a unified plan for history (Eph. 1:10, 12). The work of Christ on earth, especially his crucifixion and resurrection, is the climax of history. It is the great turning point. The present era looks back on Christ’s completed work but also forward to the consummation of his work when he will come again in the new heavens and earth.

God’s Promises and Predictions

The Old Testament directly points forward to Christ through promises of God’s salvation. God gave some specific promises in the Old Testament relating to the coming of Christ as the Messiah, the Savior in the line of David. But God often gives more general promises concerning a future great day of salvation, without spelling out all the details of how he will accomplish it. Sometimes the promises take explicit form (e.g., the coming of the Messiah), and sometimes they take symbolic form (e.g., the animal sacrifices). All of the Old Testament promises find their “yes” in Jesus (2 Cor. 1:20).

God’s Warnings and Curses

God’s relation to people also includes warnings, threatenings, and cursings, which anticipate and point forward to Christ in two distinct ways. First, Christ is the Lamb of God who bore the curse of sin on the cross (John 1:29; 2 Cor. 5:21; Gal. 3:13; 1 Pet. 2:24). Every instance of the wrath of God against sin, and his punishment of sin, looks forward to the wrath that was poured out on Christ on the cross. Second, Christ will wage war against sin and exterminate it at his second coming. All earlier judgments against sin anticipate the final judgment.

God’s Covenant Commitment and Instruction

The promises of God in the Old Testament come in the context not only of God’s commitment to his people but also of instruction about the people’s commitment and obligations to God. When God makes a covenant with man, God is the sovereign, so he specifies the obligations on both sides. “I will be their God” is the fundamental obligation on God’s side, while “they shall be my people” is the fundamental obligation on the human side.

For example, in the first call of Abram (Gen. 12:1–2) God’s commitment takes the form of promises, blessings, and curses. The promises and blessings point forward to Christ, who is the fulfillment of the promises and the source of final blessings. The curses point forward to Christ both in his bearing the curse and in his execution of judgment and curse against sin, especially at the second coming.

Christ fulfilled the obligations of God’s covenants through perfect obedience (Heb. 5:8), receiving the reward of obedience in his resurrection and ascension (Phil. 2:9–10). By dealing with God’s wrath against sin, Christ reconciled believers to God, bringing about the intimacy with God that all of the Old Testament covenants anticipated.

Christ Is the Offspring of Abraham and the Last Adam

God’s promises to Abraham were the foundation for the nation of Israel. Abraham was obligated to walk blamelessly before God (Gen. 17:1). But only Christ is without sin (Heb. 4:15), making him the ultimate offspring to whom the other offspring all point (Gal. 3:16). Through Christ, believers are united to him and thereby themselves become “Abraham’s offspring” (Gal. 3:29). Believers, Jews and Gentiles alike, become heirs to the promises of God made to Abraham and his offspring (Gal. 3:28–29).

Christ is not only the offspring of Abraham, but—reaching back farther in time to an earlier promise of God—the offspring of the woman: “I will put enmity between you [the serpent] and the woman, and between your offspring and her offspring; he shall bruise your head, and you shall bruise his heel” (Gen. 3:15). The conquest over the serpent, and therefore the conquest of evil and the reversal of its effects, is to take place through the offspring of the woman. One can trace this offspring down from Eve through Seth and his godly descendants, through Noah, and down to Abraham, where God’s promise takes the specific form of offspring for Abraham. Thus Christ is not only the offspring of Abraham but the last Adam (1 Cor. 15:45–49). Like Adam, he represents all who belong to him. And he reverses the effects of Adam’s fall.

Shadows, Prefigures, and “Types” of Christ

The Old Testament anticipates Christ the Savior by “shadows” and “types”—examples, symbols, pictures—of the things that were to come (see 1 Cor. 10:6, 11; Heb. 8:5). Animal sacrifices in the Old Testament prefigure the final sacrifice of Christ. The temple, as a dwelling place for God, prefigured Christ, who is the final “dwelling place” of God, and through whom God is with his people (Matt. 1:23; John 2:21). The Old Testament priests were types of Christ, the final high priest (Heb. 7:11–8:7).

The fulfillment of all these Old Testament shadows and types takes place preeminently in Christ (2 Cor. 1:20; Eph. 1:10). But in the New Testament those people who are “in Christ,” who place their trust in him and experience fellowship with his person and his blessings, receive the benefits of what he has accomplished. Therefore one can also find anticipations or “types” in the Old Testament that point forward to the New Testament church, the people in the New Testament who belong to Christ.

Some Old Testament symbols also may point forward especially to the consummation of salvation that takes place in the new heaven and the new earth yet to come (2 Pet. 3:13; Rev. 21:1–22:5). Old Testament Jerusalem prefigured the new Jerusalem that will come “down out of heaven from God” (Rev. 21:2).

Christ Is the Mediator

Sinful man needs a mediator who will approach God on his behalf. Jesus Christ, who is both God and man, and who is innocent of sin, is the only one who can mediate (1 Tim. 2:5–6) and the only one who can save (Acts 4:12).

All the instances of salvation and mediation in the Old Testament prefigure Christ. Prophets bring God’s word to his people. Godly kings bring God’s rule to bear on the people. Priests represent the people in coming before God’s presence. Christ is the prophet, king, and priest who fulfills all three functions in a final way (Heb. 1:1–3).

We can also look at wise men, who bring God’s wisdom to others; warriors, who bring God’s deliverance from enemies; and singers, who bring praise to God on behalf of the people and speak of God to the people. Covenants bring God’s word to the people. The temple brings God’s presence to the people. Animal sacrifices bring God’s forgiveness to the people. In reading the Bible, we should look for ways in which God brings his word and his presence to people through the means he establishes. All these means perform a mediatorial role, and because there is only one mediator, clearly they all point to Christ.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 1:21–22 To be anointed is to be set apart and gifted by God. This is symbolized in the OT by the pouring of olive oil as a sign of God’s rich provision. seal. A mark of ownership. See note on John 6:27. guarantee. A financial term referring to the first installment paid as a pledge to complete the purchase. The Spirit comes as God’s pledge to complete (“pay in full”) the final redemption of his people at the end of the age (see Rom. 8:11).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 1:23 to spare you. Paul did not return immediately to Corinth. He wanted to spare them God’s punishment.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 2:1–2 painful visit. Paul’s visit turned out to be “painful” because of the church’s open rebellion against him (see vv. 5–8; 7:8–13; 11:4).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 1:23–2:4 Paul makes clear that just as his first change of plans was a Christlike act in accordance with the promises of God, so too his decision not to come but to send them a “tearful letter” was an expression of God’s love to them in Christ (2:3–4).

2 Cor. 2:4 Paul wrote a severe letter that called the Corinthians to repentance (see 7:8–9).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 2:6 punishment. Mostly likely exclusion from the fellowship of the church (compare 1 Cor. 5:2, 5, 13).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 2:5–11 The majority in Corinth had expressed their repentance by punishing the leader of the rebellion against Paul. Paul now calls them to follow his own Christlike example toward them by extending mercy to the offender, lest Satan have his way once again in the church.

2 Cor. 2:11 Satan’s designs are to destroy the mutual forgiveness, love, and unity that is to characterize God’s people (see 5:16–6:2).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 2:12–13 Paul came to Troas after leaving Ephesus for Macedonia, hoping to meet sooner with his coworker Titus. He had sent Titus to Corinth to present the “tearful letter” (vv. 3–4; see ch. 7). Despite a good response to the gospel in Troas (a door was opened for me in the Lord), when Titus failed to show up, Paul’s spirit was not at rest. He was concerned over the welfare of Titus and the church in Corinth (see 7:5–7; 11:28).

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New Testament Timeline

5 B.C.*	Jesus is born in Bethlehem.
4 B.C.	Jesus’ family flees to Egypt to escape from Herod’s plan to kill Jesus (Matt. 2:13–18); Herod dies; Judas (of Sepphoris) and others rebel, requiring the Syrian Governor Varus to intervene throughout Palestine; Sepphoris, a city four miles from Nazareth, is destroyed by Roman soldiers; Judea, Samaria, and Idumea are given to Herod’s son, Archelaus; Galilee and Perea are given to his son Antipas; Jesus’ family, after returning from Egypt, resides in Nazareth (Matt. 2:19–23), a small village in southern Galilee.
A.D. 6	Archelaus is exiled for incompetence; Judea becomes a Roman province; Judas the Galilean (of Gamla) leads a revolt against the tax census; the governor of Syria, Quirinius (A.D. 6–7), appoints Annas high priest (6–15).
8*	Jesus (age 12) interacts with the teachers in the temple (Luke 2:41–50).
8*–28/30	Jesus works as a carpenter in Nazareth (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3) and probably in neighboring villages and Sepphoris, which was being rebuilt.
28–29*	John the Baptist begins his ministry around the Jordan River (John 1:19).
28–30*	Jesus begins his ministry in Judea, but soon focuses his efforts in Galilee. In Jerusalem, Pharisees (like Gamaliel) train disciples (like Paul) in their tradition. They send a delegation to Galilee, but the delegation rejects Jesus’ teaching. In Alexandria, Philo (20 B.C.–A.D. 50) attempts to unify Greek philosophy with Hebrew Scripture.
33 (or 30)	Jesus returns to Judea, is crucified, and resurrected. James the brother of Jesus becomes a believer after witnessing the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor. 15:7; Acts 12:17). Jesus ascends to the Father’s right hand (Acts 1). Jesus’ first followers receive the Holy Spirit at Pentecost and begin to proclaim the gospel (Acts 2).
33/34*	Paul witnesses the resurrected Lord on the way to Damascus and is commissioned as an apostle to the nations (Acts 9; Gal. 1:15–16).
34–37	Paul ministers in Damascus and Arabia (Acts 9:19–22; 26:20; Gal. 1:16–18).
36	Pilate loses his position for incompetence.
36/37*	Paul meets with Peter in Jerusalem (Acts 9:26–30; Gal. 1:18).
37–45	Paul ministers in Syria, Tarsus, and Cilicia (Acts 9:30; Gal. 1:21).
38*	Peter witnesses to Cornelius (Acts 10).
39	Antipas is exiled.
40–45*	James writes his letter to believers outside Palestine (see James 1:1).
41–44	Agrippa, Herod the Great’s grandson, rules Palestine; he kills James the brother of John (Acts 12:2) and imprisons Peter (Acts 12:3).
42–44	Paul receives his “thorn in the flesh” (2 Cor. 12:7).
44	Peter leaves Jerusalem; Agrippa is killed by an “angel of the Lord” (Acts 12:23).
44–46	Theudas persuades many Jews to sell their possessions and follow him into the wilderness where he claimed he would miraculously divide the Jordan River; Roman procurator Fadus dispatches his cavalry and beheads the would-be messiah.
44–47*	Paul’s Second Visit to Jerusalem; time of famine (Acts 11:27–30; Gal. 2:1–10).
46–47	Paul’s First Missionary Journey (with Barnabas) from Antioch to Cyprus, Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, and Lystra (Acts 13:4–14:26).
46–48	Roman procurator Tiberius Alexander crucifies two sons (Jacob and Simon) of Judas the Galilean.
48*	Paul writes Galatians, perhaps from Antioch (see Acts 14:26–28).
48–49*	Paul and Peter return to Jerusalem for the Apostolic Council, which, with the assistance of James, frees Gentile believers from the requirement of circumcision in opposition to Pharisaic believers (Acts 15:1–29); Paul and Barnabas return to Antioch (Acts 15:30) but split over a dispute about John Mark (Acts 15:36–40).
48/49–51*	Paul’s Second Missionary Journey (with Silas) from Antioch to Syria, Cilicia, southern Galatia, Macedonia, notably Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea; and then on to Achaia, notably Athens and Corinth (Acts 15:36–18:22).
49	Claudius expels Jews from Rome because of conflicts about Jesus (Acts 18:2); Paul befriends two refugees, Priscilla and Aquila, in Corinth (Acts 18:2–3).
49–51*	Paul writes 1–2 Thessalonians from Corinth (Acts 18:1, 11; also compare Acts 18:5 with 1 Thess. 1:8).
51	Paul appears before Gallio, proconsul of Achaia (Acts 18:12–17).
50–54*	Peter comes to Rome.
52–57*	Paul’s Third Missionary Journey from Antioch to Galatia, Phrygia, Ephesus, Macedonia, Greece (Acts 18:23–21:17).
52–55	Paul ministers in Ephesus (Acts 19:1–20).
53–55*	Mark writes his Gospel, containing Peter’s memories of Jesus; perhaps within a decade, Matthew publishes his Gospel, which relies on Mark and other sources. Paul writes 1 Corinthians from Ephesus (Acts 19:10).

54	Claudius dies (edict exiling Jews repealed); Priscilla and Aquila return to Rome and host a church in their home (see Rom. 16:3–5).
54–68	Nero reigns.
55–56*	Paul writes 2 Corinthians from Macedonia (Acts 20:1, 3; 2 Cor. 1:16; 2:13; 7:5; 8:1; 9:2, 4; see 1 Cor. 16:5).
57*	Paul winters in Corinth and writes Romans (Acts 20:3; see Rom. 16:1–2; also see Rom. 16:23 with 1 Cor. 1:14); travels to Jerusalem (Acts 21:1–16), visits with James the brother of Jesus (Acts 21:17–26), and is arrested (Acts 21:27–36; 22:22–29).
57–59	Paul is imprisoned and transferred to Caesarea (Acts 23:23–24, 33–34).
60	Paul begins voyage to Rome (Acts 27:1–2); he is shipwrecked for three months on the island of Malta (Acts 27:39–28:10).
60–70*	Letter to the Hebrews is written.
62	James the brother of the Lord is executed by the Sadducean high priest Ananus.
62–63*	Peter writes his first letter (1 Peter) from Rome (1 Pet. 5:13).
62*	Paul arrives in Rome and remains under house arrest (Acts 28:16–31); he writes Ephesians (see verses for Colossians), Philippians (Phil. 1:7, 13, 17; 4:22), Colossians (Col. 4:3, 10, 18; see Acts 27:2 with Col. 4:10), Philemon (see Philem. 23 with Col. 1:7; Philem. 2 with Col. 4:17; Philem. 24 with Col. 4:10; also see Col. 4:9). Luke, Paul’s physician and companion (see Col. 4:14), writes Luke and Acts.
62–64	Paul is released, extends his mission (probably reaching Spain), writes 1 Timothy from Macedonia (see 1 Tim. 1:3) and Titus from Nicopolis (Titus 3:12); he is rearrested in Rome (2 Tim. 1:16–17).
63–64	Work on the temple complex is completed.
64 (July 19)	Fire in Rome; Nero blames and kills many Christians.
64–67*	Peter writes his second letter ( 2 Peter). Jude writes his letter. Paul writes 2 Timothy (see 2 Tim. 4:6–8). Paul and Peter are martyred in Rome.
66	First Jewish-Roman War begins with a riot between Greeks and Jews at Caesarea; Roman procurator Gesius Florus (A.D. 64–66) is murdered and a Roman garrison wiped out; Menahem, son or grandson of Judas the Galilean, murders the high priest Ananias and seizes control of the temple; Nero dispatches Vespasian with three legions.
67*	Romans destroy the Qumran community, who beforehand hid the so-called Dead Sea Scrolls in nearby caves; the church in Jerusalem flees to Pella (Matt. 24:15–16; Mark 13:14; Luke 21:20–22); John migrates to Ephesus with Mary, Jesus’ mother.
68	Nero commits suicide; year of the three emperors.
69	Rebellion quelled in Galilee and Samaria; Vespasian summoned back to Rome to become emperor.
70 (Aug. 30)	Titus, Vespasian’s son, after a five-month siege of Jerusalem, destroys the temple after desecrating it; the temple’s menorah, Torah, and veil are removed and later put on display in a victory parade in Rome; the influence of the Sadducees ends; the Pharisee Johanan ben Zakkai escapes and convinces the Romans to allow him and others to settle in Jamnia, where they found a school.
73 (May 2)*	Before Roman general Silva breaches the fortress atop Masada following a two-year siege, 936 Jewish rebels commit suicide.
75	Titus has an affair with the Jewish princess Berenice, sister of Agrippa II (Acts 25:13, 23), whom he later abandons because of the scandal.
77	Pliny the Elder writes Natural History.
77–78	Josephus publishes Jewish War in Rome.
79	Pompeii and Herculaneum are destroyed by eruption of Vesuvius; Pliny the Elder dies attempting to investigate.
81	The Arch of Titus, celebrating his destruction of the temple, is erected in Rome.
81–96	Domitian, Titus’s brother, persecutes Christians among the Roman nobility, including his own relatives Clemens and Domitilla.
85–95*	John writes his letters (1–3 John), probably in Ephesus.
89–95*	John writes his Gospel, probably in Ephesus.
93–94	Josephus publishes Jewish Antiquities in Rome.
94	Domitian exiles philosophers from Rome.
95*	Amidst persecution, Clement, a leader in the Roman church, writes his Letter to the Corinthians (1 Clement) appealing for peace between the young men and elders.
95–96*	Exiled by Domitian to Patmos, John writes Revelation (Rev. 1:9).
96–98	Nerva, the first of five “good” emperors, ends official persecution.

* denotes approximate date; / signifies either/or

Study Notes

2 Cor. 2:14 leads us in triumphal procession. Most interpreters think this refers to the grand victory parades celebrated in Rome after great battles. Here God is portrayed as the sovereign victor. Christ is the general, leading the victory procession. Paul is “captured” by Christ but now joyfully follows him. This picture reflects an ongoing theme throughout 2 Corinthians: the contrast between the believer’s apparent defeat and his actual (spiritual) victory.

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The Believer’s Apparent (Temporal) Defeat and Actual (Spiritual) Victory

The Believer’s Apparent (Temporal) Defeat	The Believer’s Actual (Spiritual) Victory
For we were so utterly burdened beyond our strength that we despaired of life itself. Indeed, we felt that we had received the sentence of death (1:8–9).	He delivered us from such a deadly peril, and he will deliver us. On him we have set our hope that he will deliver us again (1:10).
When I came to Troas to preach the gospel of Christ . . . my spirit was not at rest . . . (2:12–13).	But thanks be to God, who in Christ always leads us in triumphal procession . . . (2:14).
We are afflicted in every way, but not crushed; perplexed, but not driven to despair; persecuted, but not forsaken; struck down, but not destroyed; always carrying in the body the death of Jesus, so that the life of Jesus may also be manifested in our bodies (4:8–10).	Though our outer self is wasting away, our inner self is being renewed day by day. For this light momentary affliction is preparing for us an eternal weight of glory beyond all comparison, as we look not to the things that are seen but to the things that are unseen (4:16–18).
A thorn was given me in the flesh, a messenger of Satan to harass me, to keep me from becoming conceited (12:7).	But [the Lord] said to me, “My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness” (12:9).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 2:15–16a aroma . . . fragrance. Some believe this refers to the incense spread along the streets during the triumphal procession (see note on v. 14). However, the terms used here are used often in the Greek OT to refer to the aroma of a sacrifice pleasing to God (e.g., Ex. 29:25). Christ is pictured as the primary sacrifice. Paul’s offering of his entire life to God (compare Rom. 12:1; Heb. 13:15–16) can then be seen as an extension of Christ’s death (see 2 Cor. 1:5). It is the aroma of Christ to God. from death to death . . . from life to life. Some dislike Paul’s life and message. This leads to their own condemnation. Others are attracted by the Christlike beauty seen in Paul and his message. Their acceptance of his message leads to their own eternal life.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 1:12–2:17 Paul offers a detailed defense of why he had changed his mind more than once about returning to Corinth. The process included: (1) an initial plan to visit Macedonia first, then Corinth (1 Cor. 16:5); (2) a subsequent plan to visit Corinth first, then Macedonia (2 Cor. 1:15); and finally (3) a decision to avoid “another painful visit” to Corinth, so that he went, by way of Troas, to Macedonia first (1:23; 2:1).

2 Cor. 2:12–17 These verses explain some of Paul’s actions behind writing 2 Corinthians (vv. 12–13; see also 7:5–16). They also reintroduce the letter’s main theme (2:14–17).

2 Cor. 2:16b–17 Who is sufficient for these things? The implied answer clearly is “No one.” Our “sufficiency” comes only from God by means of his grace. Some of Paul’s opponents demanded payment for their ministries as if they were peddlers of God’s word (see 11:7–15; 12:13–16). In contrast, Paul’s commitment to support himself brought with him many hardships (see 1 Cor. 4:11–13; 15:10; 2 Cor. 6:5; 11:23).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 3:1 Paul expects a negative answer to his two rhetorical questions, since his claim to be an apostle is not an empty boast (he does not commend himself). His claim of apostleship is supported by the Spirit and by his ministry of suffering. For the theme of “commendation” in 2 Corinthians, see notes on 4:2; 6:4; 10:12; 10:17–18.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 3:2–3 letter from Christ. By the Corinthians’ changed lives, Christ testifies to Paul’s true apostleship because he is the one who brought the gospel to them (delivered by us). on tablets of stone. See Ex. 24:12; Deut. 9:10. on tablets of human hearts. See Ezek. 11:19; 36:26.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 3:5 sufficiency is from God. Paul’s sufficiency as an apostle echoes the accounts of the callings of the OT prophets (see Judg. 6:11–24; Isa. 6:1–8; Jer. 1:4–10; Ezek. 1:1–3:11).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 3:1–6 Paul makes it clear that, as an apostle, he was called to mediate the Spirit in fulfillment of the new covenant.

2 Cor. 3:6 ministers. Whereas “apostle” refers to Paul’s authoritative office, “minister” (or “servant”) refers to how he carries out his work. He can share this role with non-apostles (e.g., 4:1; 5:18; 1 Cor. 3:5). Here “minister” refers to Paul’s role of mediating the Spirit as promised in the new covenant (Jer. 31:33–34; Ezek. 36:25–27). the letter kills, but the Spirit gives life. Compare Rom. 2:29 and 7:6, the other two NT occurrences of this contrast. The letter kills since it announces God’s will without granting the power to keep it. This brings people under God’s judgment as covenant breakers. The Spirit alone gives life because only the Spirit can change the heart, enabling God’s people to keep his commands.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 3:7–9 Moses’ ministry is described as a ministry of death because Israel would not obey the law (see Ex. 32:9; 34:9) and so received condemnation (2 Cor. 3:9). The giving of the law was accompanied by so much glory that the Israelites could not gaze at Moses’ face. See Ex. 34:29–35.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 3:10–11 Now that the new covenant has come, the old covenant has come to have no glory at all, since God is no longer revealing himself through it. The glory of the new covenant also surpasses that of the old in that the new covenant is a permanent, everlasting covenant.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 3:12 Paul’s confident expectation (his hope) is that God is pouring out the Spirit to change people’s hearts.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 3:13 Veil is the key concept in vv. 13–18. so that the Israelites might not gaze at the outcome of what was being brought to an end. This explains why Moses veiled his face (Ex. 34:33, 35). The most likely interpretation is that Moses put a veil over his face so the Israelites would not see that the glory was gradually fading. This fading signified the temporary nature of the old covenant.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 3:14–15 Despite Paul’s ministry, Israel’s minds, which were hardened in Moses’ day (Ex. 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9), remained so to this day. See also Deut. 29:4; Isa. 29:10. This is seen by the fact that that same veil remains unlifted in Paul’s day whenever Moses is read. Here Paul uses Moses’ veil as a symbol for the people’s hardened condition. This hardness kept most Jews in Paul’s day from recognizing that the law of Moses itself points to Jesus as the Messiah.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 3:17 the Lord is the Spirit. Paul seems to be saying that the Christian’s experience of the ministry of the Spirit under the new covenant (vv. 3–8) is parallel to Moses’ experience of God the Father under the old covenant. The Spirit (under the new covenant) sets one free from the veil of hard-heartedness (vv. 12–15). Paul regularly distinguishes Christ from the Holy Spirit in his writings. That is surely the case here, since later in this verse he speaks of the Spirit of the Lord. There is freedom most likely refers to the many kinds of freedom that come with salvation in Christ and with the presence of the Holy Spirit. These include freedom from condemnation, guilt, sin, death, the old covenant, and blindness to the gospel. It also includes access to the loving presence of God.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 3:12–18 If Paul’s ministry announces life, not death, then why are the majority of the Jews in Paul’s day still rejecting it? Does Israel’s rejection of Paul’s message call the gospel itself into question? Paul answers these questions in this next section.

2 Cor. 3:18 with unveiled face, beholding the glory of the Lord. As a result of seeing the Lord through the ministry of the Spirit, the believer is being transformed (over time) into the same image of God that was distorted at the fall (see Gen. 1:26–27; 2 Cor. 5:17; also 1 John 3:2). The “image” of God includes every way in which humans are like God. This includes their moral character, their knowledge, their many God-given abilities, and their rule over creation (see Gen. 1:26–28).

2 Corinthians Fact #2: A new covenant

Fact: A new covenant

Study Notes

2 Cor. 4:2 Paul is not motivated by money (2:17). He does not crave human approval (Gal. 1:10). Thus, Paul refused to tamper with God’s word by watering it down or changing it to suit what people want to hear (compare 2 Tim. 4:3). (The Greek word for “tamper” was also used to describe diluting wine.) Rather, Paul’s open statement of the truth shows that he does not proclaim a “secret” or hidden gospel.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 4:3–5 If our gospel is veiled refers to the hardened heart that makes it impossible for some to recognize Jesus as the Messiah (see 3:12–15). The god of this world refers to Satan. the light of the gospel of the glory of Christ. The gospel shows how Christ’s death on the cross makes it possible for God’s people to be in his presence. This gospel is both proclaimed and modeled by Paul (see 1 Cor. 2:1–5). See further the contrast between Paul’s attitudes and actions and those of his opponents (2 Cor. 11:4).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 4:6 Paul uses the creation of light in Gen. 1:3 to picture conversion as the dawning of the new creation in this fallen world. the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ. To know the glory of Christ (2 Cor. 4:4) is to encounter the life-transforming glory of God.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 4:7 treasure. A reference to the “knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Christ” (v. 6) as the content of the gospel (v. 4). jars of clay. A common metaphor in the ancient world for human weakness (see Ps. 31:12; Isa. 30:14). This verse restates the central thesis of 2 Corinthians as seen in 1:3–11 and 2:14–17: God triumphs amid human weakness (see 1 Cor. 1:27; 2 Cor. 12:5–9; 13:4).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 4:11–12 Paul’s suffering and endurance are intended to bring about resurrection life among the Corinthians as they learn to trust God during difficulty (see 1:6–7).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 4:13 the same spirit of faith. Most interpreters have understood “spirit” to refer not to the Holy Spirit but to the attitude of trust in spite of affliction that Paul shared with David (see Ps. 116:10).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 4:16 Outer self . . . inner self describes the contrast between Paul’s life of suffering in this present evil age (his outer self) and the moral and spiritual transformation of his life into the image of God (his inner self; see 3:18). See Rom. 6:5–6; Eph. 3:16; 4:20–24; Col. 3:5–14.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 4:17–18 Earlier, Paul’s suffering was a burden too heavy to carry (1:8). Now it is a light momentary affliction in view of the eternal weight of glory beyond all comparison (see Rom. 8:18). Far from harming him permanently, the difficulty is preparing him to receive a great eternal reward. the things that are seen. Paul’s suffering and all the shortcomings of this present age. the things that are unseen. The full restoration of all things at the final resurrection.

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The Believer’s Apparent (Temporal) Defeat and Actual (Spiritual) Victory

The Believer’s Apparent (Temporal) Defeat	The Believer’s Actual (Spiritual) Victory
For we were so utterly burdened beyond our strength that we despaired of life itself. Indeed, we felt that we had received the sentence of death (1:8–9).	He delivered us from such a deadly peril, and he will deliver us. On him we have set our hope that he will deliver us again (1:10).
When I came to Troas to preach the gospel of Christ . . . my spirit was not at rest . . . (2:12–13).	But thanks be to God, who in Christ always leads us in triumphal procession . . . (2:14).
We are afflicted in every way, but not crushed; perplexed, but not driven to despair; persecuted, but not forsaken; struck down, but not destroyed; always carrying in the body the death of Jesus, so that the life of Jesus may also be manifested in our bodies (4:8–10).	Though our outer self is wasting away, our inner self is being renewed day by day. For this light momentary affliction is preparing for us an eternal weight of glory beyond all comparison, as we look not to the things that are seen but to the things that are unseen (4:16–18).
A thorn was given me in the flesh, a messenger of Satan to harass me, to keep me from becoming conceited (12:7).	But [the Lord] said to me, “My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness” (12:9).

2 Corinthians Fact #3: Treasure in jars of clay

Fact: Treasure in jars of clay

Study Notes

2 Cor. 5:1 the tent that is our earthly home. Present human bodies, which will die. building from God . . . eternal in the heavens. The resurrection body that believers will receive on the last day (see 1 Thess. 4:13–18; Rev. 21:1–22:5).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 5:2–4 Paul longs for the resurrection (that is, being further clothed; see v. 1) in order to not be found naked or unclothed. This likely refers to the intermediate state in which believers’ spirits are with God but they do not yet have their resurrected bodies.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 5:5 the Spirit as a guarantee. The presence of the Spirit in Christians’ lives now is the down payment or guarantee that they will receive resurrection bodies when Jesus returns.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 5:6 at home . . . away. See note on v. 8.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 5:7 walk by faith, not by sight. Trusting in God’s promises (4:18–5:1).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 5:8 away from the body and at home with the Lord. Paul expects that, when he dies, his spirit will go immediately into Christ’s presence. He will remain in that state until the day of resurrection (compare Phil. 1:23; Heb. 12:23).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 5:9 we make it our aim to please him. See Eph. 5:10; Col. 3:20; Heb. 13:21; by contrast, Paul fears displeasing God; see 2 Cor. 5:11; also Eph. 4:30.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 5:10 the judgment seat of Christ. The “judgment seat” in the Roman courtroom was where the governor sat while giving verdicts. In the coming age, Christ will judge as God the Father’s representative. He will rule the kingdom that the Father has given him (see Rom. 14:10–12). so that each one may receive what is due for what he has done . . . whether good or evil. Present-day actions have eternal consequences.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 5:11 the fear of the Lord. See 7:1; see note on Acts 5:5.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 5:12 On Paul’s commending himself, see note on 4:2.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 5:13 if we are beside ourselves . . . if we are in our right mind. This possibly responds to some Corinthians calling Paul crazy. Paul’s motivation is to please Christ (v. 9), so his goal is to persuade others (v. 11b). It is not to urge others to seek exotic religious experiences.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 5:14–15 one has died for all, therefore all have died. By Christ’s death, the death penalty for sin (see Gen. 2:17) has been paid for all those who trust in him (see Rom. 3:21–26; 1 Cor. 15:3). the love of Christ controls us. See Titus 2:11–14.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 5:16 Regard no one according to the flesh, that is, according to worldly standards and values which claim that one’s present physical life is all that matters. Before Paul’s conversion, he regarded Christ according to the flesh. He considered Christ to be a false messiah whose suffering and death were punishment from God (see Deut. 21:23).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 5:17 The redemption of a people who live for Christ by living for others is the beginning of the new creation (see Isa. 43:18–19; 65:17–23; 66:22–23). This new creation also begins Israel’s final restoration from God’s judgment in the exile (see the context of Isa. 43:1–21; 65:17–25).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 5:18–20 reconciliation. These verses outline (1) the basis of Paul’s apostolic ministry of the new covenant (Paul’s own reconciliation to God through Christ); (2) its consequence (his ministry and message of reconciliation to the world for Christ); (3) its essential content (the forgiveness of sins because of Christ’s death); and (4) its call (on behalf of Christ, be reconciled to God). ambassadors for Christ. Paul is God’s prophetic minister of the new covenant (3:4–6). He announces God’s “peace treaty” (see Isa. 53:5) with those who will trust in Christ to free them from the penalty and power of sin (2 Cor. 5:14–15; see Rom. 5:11).

2 Corinthians Fact #4: What does it mean to be “reconciled”?

Fact: What does it mean to be “reconciled”?

Study Notes

2 Cor. 5:21 This verse is one of the most important in all of Scripture for understanding the meaning of the atonement and justification. The one who knew no sin is Jesus Christ (v. 20), and he (God) made him (Christ) to be sin. God the Father made Christ to be viewed and treated as “sin” even though Christ himself never sinned (Heb. 4:15; see Gal. 3:13). For our sake. God viewed and treated “our” sin as if it belonged to Christ himself. Thus Christ “died for all” (2 Cor. 5:14) and became our substitute. Christ took the punishment that we deserved (1 Pet. 2:24). The background for this is Isaiah 53, the most lengthy and detailed OT prophecy of Christ’s death. It contains several parallels to 2 Cor. 5:21. so that in him we might become the righteousness of God. Just as God gave our sin and guilt to Christ (“he made him to be sin”) so God also gives Christ’s righteousness to all who believe in Christ. God now views and treats believers as having the legal status of “righteousness.” See further notes on Rom. 5:18; 10:3; 10:6–8; see also Isa. 53:11.