What was the thorn in Paul's flesh?

Footnotes

[1] 11:17 Greek not according to the Lord
[2] 11:27 Or often in fasting
[3] 12:7 Or hears from me, even because of the surpassing greatness of the revelations. So to keep me from becoming conceited
[4] 13:11 Or brothers and sisters
[5] 13:11 Or listen to my appeal

Introduction to 2 Corinthians

Timeline

Author, Date, and Recipients

The apostle Paul wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia around A.D. 55/56. This was approximately a year after he wrote 1 Corinthians and a year before he wrote his letter to the Romans. This is the fourth letter he had written to the Corinthian church (in addition to 1 Corinthians, see the letters mentioned in 1 Cor. 5:9 and 2 Cor. 2:3–4).

Theme

The central theme of 2 Corinthians is the relationship between suffering and the power of the Spirit in Paul’s apostolic life, ministry, and message. Paul’s opponents had questioned his motives and his personal courage. They argued that he had suffered too much to be a Spirit-filled apostle of the risen Christ. But Paul argues that his suffering is the means God uses to reveal his glory (1:3–4, 11, 20).

Purpose

Paul vindicates his apostolic ministry in order to (1) strengthen the faithful majority in Corinth (primarily chs. 1–7); (2) encourage them to contribute to the financial needs of other believers, as an expression of their repentance (primarily chs. 8–9); and (3) offer the rebellious minority in Corinth another chance to repent before he returns to judge those still rejecting him and his message (primarily chs. 10–13).

Key Themes

Paul’s suffering imitates the cross of Christ. Those who reject him because he suffers are “false apostles” and “servants of Satan” (11:13–15).
Paul is a servant of the new covenant (3:6). His ministry and message of the cross mediates the Spirit of the living God and God’s righteousness to believers (3:3, 6–9; 5:14–15, 21).
Endurance through difficulty and Christlike behavior are made possible by the grace of God and are modeled by Paul himself. These qualities are the greatest display of God’s presence, power, and glory in this fallen world (1:12–14; 6:14–7:1; 12:7–10; 13:4).
The Spirit transforms believers into the image of God, which is seen in Christ. This new creation is characterized by God’s righteousness. Believers therefore embody the new creation of the new covenant by living for the sake of others. This is made possible because believers are reconciled with God through the cross (3:18; 5:15, 17–21).
Repentance expresses itself in holiness. This is a purity-producing love for God and his church and a unity-creating love for one’s neighbor (6:14–7:1; chs. 8–9).
Christ, as Savior, is also the universal Judge. He will judge all people according to their deeds. The Spirit transforms those in whom he dwells as a guarantee of the “eternal weight of glory” to come for believers at the resurrection (1:22; 3:18; 5:5, 9–11).

Outline

Paul’s Defense of His Ministry as an Apostle (1:1–7:16)
Paul’s Appeal to the Repentant Church Regarding the Collection (8:1–9:15)
Paul’s Appeal to the Rebellious Minority in Corinth (10:1–13:10)
Closing Greetings (13:11–14)

The Setting of 2 Corinthians

c. A.D. 55–56

Paul wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia a year or so after writing 1 Corinthians, during his third missionary journey. He had just finished his three-year ministry in Ephesus and was visiting the churches in Macedonia as he made his way to Corinth. In Macedonia he met Titus, who had returned from Corinth with news about the church there.

The Global Message of 2 Corinthians

Paul’s second letter to the Corinthians unlocks one of the great secrets of Christian life and ministry to believers all around the globe: God’s power is channeled through human weakness.

Second Corinthians and Redemptive History

Throughout the Old Testament we see an ever-heightening anticipation of the coming Messiah—a Davidic king who was expected to wipe out God’s enemies once and for all, restore God’s people, and reign forevermore (2 Sam. 7:12–16; Psalm 110; Jer. 33:14–18; Dan. 7:13–14; Zech. 6:12–13). Mingled in with these hope-filled prophecies, however, are perplexing predictions of a coming one who would suffer on behalf of God’s people (Psalm 22; Isa. 52:13–53:12).

At the pinnacle of world history, God brought about his long-promised restoration through the suffering of his own Son. God brought together these two strands—the triumphant king and the suffering victim—in one person.

The result is that believers all over the world are not required to qualify themselves with any kind of moral goodness or education or family background or anything else they might bring to the table. Rather, all it takes to qualify for God’s favor is to acknowledge that one does not qualify—and then look to Christ. As God’s triumphant Son, Jesus qualified for God’s favor in a way none of us ever can. Yet as God’s suffering servant he allowed himself to be treated as one who was disqualified. Consequently, all people around the world who trust in him, though condemned in themselves, can be counted as righteous in God’s sight.

Universal Themes in 2 Corinthians

Strength in weakness. This is the central message of 2 Corinthians. Throughout the letter Paul turns upside down our natural expectations of the way life works. Contrary to the way the world and our own human hearts naturally function, God takes what is low, despised, and weak to accomplish his purposes. Second Corinthians tells us that comfort comes through affliction (2 Cor. 1:3–7), sufficiency through insufficiency (3:1–6), life through death (4:7–15), blessing through suffering (6:3–10), salvation through grief (7:2–10), abundance through poverty (8:1–2, 9, 14), and boasting through hardship (11:16–30). Chapter 12 then gives the key principle: God’s “power is made perfect in weakness” (12:9). Weakness is not good in itself, yet it is God’s chosen means of displaying his grace and glory and power.

Reconciliation. One of the main reasons Paul wrote 2 Corinthians was to emphasize the importance of reconciliation among believers. Paul addresses the need for the Corinthians to reconcile with an estranged brother (2 Cor. 2:5–11) as well as with Paul himself (7:2–16). Indeed, to fail to reconcile is to be outwitted by Satan (2:11). As believers face divisions across the global church as well as broken relationships closer to home, Paul’s gentle exhortations to pursue restoration when possible are words worth remembering.

Servant leadership. In both letters to the church at Corinth but especially in 2 Corinthians, Paul gives a powerful example of what it means to lead the body of Christ. Above all, Christian leaders are to do what Christ himself did: pour out their lives in self-giving love for the sake of others. While Christians in no way atone for sin as Christ did, we do spread the knowledge of that atonement in the way he did—through sacrificial love (2 Cor. 4:10–12). “If we are afflicted, it is for your comfort and salvation” (1:6). “For what we proclaim is not ourselves, but Jesus Christ as Lord, with ourselves as your servants for Jesus’ sake” (4:5). Servant leadership is not optional for the global church. It is not for some regions of the world but not for others. It is the high calling of all who lead God’s people.

The Global Message of 2 Corinthians for Today

The letter of 2 Corinthians provides rich comfort and hope for believers today around the world.

God’s way of measuring success and significance is entirely different than the world’s way. In many places today the church is publicly marginalized because it is seen as silly, or it is persecuted because it is seen as threatening, or it is simply ignored because it is seen as irrelevant. Judged by the world’s standards of influence, the church seems powerless at such times. Viewed with heaven’s eyes, however, it is often precisely in such places of adversity that the Spirit is alive and well and the gospel is advancing (2 Thess. 3:1).

This is hope-giving, but also humbling. In those places around the world today where statistics would seem to indicate that the church is healthy, such health may be hollow. Where the numbers seem to indicate success in evangelism, who knows how many will turn out to have been “rocky ground” (see Mark 4:5)? Where significant financial resources have produced slick programs and impressive services, has dependence on the Holy Spirit been neglected? God will accomplish his work in the world, whether “by many or by few” (1 Sam. 14:6).

Paul’s second letter to the Corinthians is therefore both heartening and chastening. It encourages those who are struggling while cautioning those whose lives may be outwardly impressive. As the global church continues to pursue our sacred calling to make disciples of all nations (Matt. 28:19), may we do so in the glad knowledge that natural eloquence, impressive resumes, and sparkling educations are not required for the Spirit to move in power. Such things, while good, may even get in the way. All that is needed is sincere openness to the Lord who in Christ became weak himself (2 Cor. 13:4) so that weak sinners can know true strength, by his grace.

Ephesians Fact #3: Visions

Fact: Visions

The apostle Paul received special visions from God (see Acts 22:17–21; 2 Cor. 12:1–7; Gal. 2:2). In his first vision, he saw the Lord Jesus (Acts 9:1–7). One of the mysteries God later revealed in a vision was that the gospel was for both Jews and Gentiles (Eph. 3:6).

2 Corinthians Fact #1: Amen

Fact: Amen

Amen is the Greek form of the Hebrew word meaning “to confirm.” The word is used throughout the Bible to affirm the truth of important statements (see 1:20). Paul often ends his letters with “Amen” (see Rom. 16:27), but here in 2 Corinthians he says it near the beginning of his letter.

Revelation Fact #16: Benedictions

Fact: Benedictions

Revelation contains seven benedictions, or blessings (see chart). Some other memorable benedictions include Aaron’s blessing on Israel (Num. 6:24–26), 2 Corinthians 13:14, and Jude 24–25. These and other blessings are often used in Christian worship.

2 Corinthians Fact #9: Preaching for free

Fact: Preaching for free

Preaching for free. Some traveling teachers in Paul’s day accepted money from their listeners, but Paul worked as a tentmaker to support himself (Acts 18:3; see 1 Cor. 9:4–18). Churches also supported his missions financially (2 Cor. 11:9).

2 Corinthians Fact #8: Problems in Corinth

Fact: Problems in Corinth

Problems in Corinth. Paul’s second visit to Corinth was a painful one. The Corinthians had accepted false teachers, and they openly rebelled against Paul and the gospel. Grieved, he left and sent them a severe letter (now lost). Paul now warns them that during his third visit he will be forced to judge those who have not repented from their sins (10:2; 12:20–21; 13:10).

The Setting of 2 Corinthians

c. A.D. 55–56

New Testament Timeline

The following chart provides a detailed New Testament timeline. Most of the dates can be determined precisely by correlating biblical events with extensive historical documents and archaeological evidence. Dates with an asterisk denote approximate or alternative dates. The extensive external confirmation of New Testament dates and events encourages great confidence in the truth and historicity of both the Old and New Testaments.

5 B.C.*	Jesus is born in Bethlehem.
4 B.C.	Jesus’ family flees to Egypt to escape from Herod’s plan to kill Jesus (Matt. 2:13–18); Herod dies; Judas (of Sepphoris) and others rebel, requiring the Syrian Governor Varus to intervene throughout Palestine; Sepphoris, a city four miles from Nazareth, is destroyed by Roman soldiers; Judea, Samaria, and Idumea are given to Herod’s son, Archelaus; Galilee and Perea are given to his son Antipas; Jesus’ family, after returning from Egypt, resides in Nazareth (Matt. 2:19–23), a small village in southern Galilee.
A.D. 6	Archelaus is exiled for incompetence; Judea becomes a Roman province; Judas the Galilean (of Gamla) leads a revolt against the tax census; the governor of Syria, Quirinius (A.D. 6–7), appoints Annas high priest (6–15).
8*	Jesus (age 12) interacts with the teachers in the temple (Luke 2:41–50).
8*–28/30	Jesus works as a carpenter in Nazareth (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3) and probably in neighboring villages and Sepphoris, which was being rebuilt.
28–29*	John the Baptist begins his ministry around the Jordan River (John 1:19).
28–30*	Jesus begins his ministry in Judea, but soon focuses his efforts in Galilee. In Jerusalem, Pharisees (like Gamaliel) train disciples (like Paul) in their tradition. They send a delegation to Galilee, but the delegation rejects Jesus’ teaching. In Alexandria, Philo (20 B.C.–A.D. 50) attempts to unify Greek philosophy with Hebrew Scripture.
33 (or 30)	Jesus returns to Judea, is crucified, and resurrected. James the brother of Jesus becomes a believer after witnessing the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor. 15:7; Acts 12:17). Jesus ascends to the Father’s right hand (Acts 1). Jesus’ first followers receive the Holy Spirit at Pentecost and begin to proclaim the gospel (Acts 2).
33/34*	Paul witnesses the resurrected Lord on the way to Damascus and is commissioned as an apostle to the nations (Acts 9; Gal. 1:15–16).
34–37	Paul ministers in Damascus and Arabia (Acts 9:19–22; 26:20; Gal. 1:16–18).
36	Pilate loses his position for incompetence.
36/37*	Paul meets with Peter in Jerusalem (Acts 9:26–30; Gal. 1:18).
37–45	Paul ministers in Syria, Tarsus, and Cilicia (Acts 9:30; Gal. 1:21).
38*	Peter witnesses to Cornelius (Acts 10).
39	Antipas is exiled.
40–45*	James writes his letter to believers outside Palestine (see James 1:1).
41–44	Agrippa, Herod the Great’s grandson, rules Palestine; he kills James the brother of John (Acts 12:2) and imprisons Peter (Acts 12:3).
42–44	Paul receives his “thorn in the flesh” (2 Cor. 12:7).
44	Peter leaves Jerusalem; Agrippa is killed by an “angel of the Lord” (Acts 12:23).
44–46	Theudas persuades many Jews to sell their possessions and follow him into the wilderness where he claimed he would miraculously divide the Jordan River; Roman procurator Fadus dispatches his cavalry and beheads the would-be messiah.
44–47*	Paul’s Second Visit to Jerusalem; time of famine (Acts 11:27–30; Gal. 2:1–10).
46–47	Paul’s First Missionary Journey (with Barnabas) from Antioch to Cyprus, Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, and Lystra (Acts 13:4–14:26).
46–48	Roman procurator Tiberius Alexander crucifies two sons (Jacob and Simon) of Judas the Galilean.
48*	Paul writes Galatians, perhaps from Antioch (see Acts 14:26–28).
48–49*	Paul and Peter return to Jerusalem for the Apostolic Council, which, with the assistance of James, frees Gentile believers from the requirement of circumcision in opposition to Pharisaic believers (Acts 15:1–29); Paul and Barnabas return to Antioch (Acts 15:30) but split over a dispute about John Mark (Acts 15:36–40).
48/49–51*	Paul’s Second Missionary Journey (with Silas) from Antioch to Syria, Cilicia, southern Galatia, Macedonia, notably Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea; and then on to Achaia, notably Athens and Corinth (Acts 15:36–18:22).
49	Claudius expels Jews from Rome because of conflicts about Jesus (Acts 18:2); Paul befriends two refugees, Priscilla and Aquila, in Corinth (Acts 18:2–3).
49–51*	Paul writes 1–2 Thessalonians from Corinth (Acts 18:1, 11; also compare Acts 18:5 with 1 Thess. 1:8).
51	Paul appears before Gallio, proconsul of Achaia (Acts 18:12–17).
50–54*	Peter comes to Rome.
52–57*	Paul’s Third Missionary Journey from Antioch to Galatia, Phrygia, Ephesus, Macedonia, Greece (Acts 18:23–21:17).
52–55	Paul ministers in Ephesus (Acts 19:1–20).
53–55*	Mark writes his Gospel, containing Peter’s memories of Jesus; perhaps within a decade, Matthew publishes his Gospel, which relies on Mark and other sources. Paul writes 1 Corinthians from Ephesus (Acts 19:10).

54	Claudius dies (edict exiling Jews repealed); Priscilla and Aquila return to Rome and host a church in their home (see Rom. 16:3–5).
54–68	Nero reigns.
55–56*	Paul writes 2 Corinthians from Macedonia (Acts 20:1, 3; 2 Cor. 1:16; 2:13; 7:5; 8:1; 9:2, 4; see 1 Cor. 16:5).
57*	Paul winters in Corinth and writes Romans (Acts 20:3; see Rom. 16:1–2; also see Rom. 16:23 with 1 Cor. 1:14); travels to Jerusalem (Acts 21:1–16), visits with James the brother of Jesus (Acts 21:17–26), and is arrested (Acts 21:27–36; 22:22–29).
57–59	Paul is imprisoned and transferred to Caesarea (Acts 23:23–24, 33–34).
60	Paul begins voyage to Rome (Acts 27:1–2); he is shipwrecked for three months on the island of Malta (Acts 27:39–28:10).
60–70*	Letter to the Hebrews is written.
62	James the brother of the Lord is executed by the Sadducean high priest Ananus.
62–63*	Peter writes his first letter (1 Peter) from Rome (1 Pet. 5:13).
62*	Paul arrives in Rome and remains under house arrest (Acts 28:16–31); he writes Ephesians (see verses for Colossians), Philippians (Phil. 1:7, 13, 17; 4:22), Colossians (Col. 4:3, 10, 18; see Acts 27:2 with Col. 4:10), Philemon (see Philem. 23 with Col. 1:7; Philem. 2 with Col. 4:17; Philem. 24 with Col. 4:10; also see Col. 4:9). Luke, Paul’s physician and companion (see Col. 4:14), writes Luke and Acts.
62–64	Paul is released, extends his mission (probably reaching Spain), writes 1 Timothy from Macedonia (see 1 Tim. 1:3) and Titus from Nicopolis (Titus 3:12); he is rearrested in Rome (2 Tim. 1:16–17).
63–64	Work on the temple complex is completed.
64 (July 19)	Fire in Rome; Nero blames and kills many Christians.
64–67*	Peter writes his second letter ( 2 Peter). Jude writes his letter. Paul writes 2 Timothy (see 2 Tim. 4:6–8). Paul and Peter are martyred in Rome.
66	First Jewish-Roman War begins with a riot between Greeks and Jews at Caesarea; Roman procurator Gesius Florus (A.D. 64–66) is murdered and a Roman garrison wiped out; Menahem, son or grandson of Judas the Galilean, murders the high priest Ananias and seizes control of the temple; Nero dispatches Vespasian with three legions.
67*	Romans destroy the Qumran community, who beforehand hid the so-called Dead Sea Scrolls in nearby caves; the church in Jerusalem flees to Pella (Matt. 24:15–16; Mark 13:14; Luke 21:20–22); John migrates to Ephesus with Mary, Jesus’ mother.
68	Nero commits suicide; year of the three emperors.
69	Rebellion quelled in Galilee and Samaria; Vespasian summoned back to Rome to become emperor.
70 (Aug. 30)	Titus, Vespasian’s son, after a five-month siege of Jerusalem, destroys the temple after desecrating it; the temple’s menorah, Torah, and veil are removed and later put on display in a victory parade in Rome; the influence of the Sadducees ends; the Pharisee Johanan ben Zakkai escapes and convinces the Romans to allow him and others to settle in Jamnia, where they found a school.
73 (May 2)*	Before Roman general Silva breaches the fortress atop Masada following a two-year siege, 936 Jewish rebels commit suicide.
75	Titus has an affair with the Jewish princess Berenice, sister of Agrippa II (Acts 25:13, 23), whom he later abandons because of the scandal.
77	Pliny the Elder writes Natural History.
77–78	Josephus publishes Jewish War in Rome.
79	Pompeii and Herculaneum are destroyed by eruption of Vesuvius; Pliny the Elder dies attempting to investigate.
81	The Arch of Titus, celebrating his destruction of the temple, is erected in Rome.
81–96	Domitian, Titus’s brother, persecutes Christians among the Roman nobility, including his own relatives Clemens and Domitilla.
85–95*	John writes his letters (1–3 John), probably in Ephesus.
89–95*	John writes his Gospel, probably in Ephesus.
93–94	Josephus publishes Jewish Antiquities in Rome.
94	Domitian exiles philosophers from Rome.
95*	Amidst persecution, Clement, a leader in the Roman church, writes his Letter to the Corinthians (1 Clement) appealing for peace between the young men and elders.
95–96*	Exiled by Domitian to Patmos, John writes Revelation (Rev. 1:9).
96–98	Nerva, the first of five “good” emperors, ends official persecution.

* denotes approximate date; / signifies either/or

Major Events in the Life of the Apostle Paul

A.D. 5–10?	Born in Tarsus, an Israelite from the tribe of Benjamin and a Roman citizen (Acts 22:3, 28; Rom. 11:1; Phil. 3:5); raised in either Jerusalem (Acts 22:3?) or Tarsus
15–20?	Trained as a Pharisee by Gamaliel I (Acts 22:3; 26:5; Gal. 1:14; Phil. 3:5–6)
30/33?	Death, resurrection of Christ
31–34	Present at Stephen’s stoning; persecuted Christians (Acts 7:58; 8:1; 22:4a; 26:9–11; 1 Cor. 15:9; Gal. 1:13; Phil. 3:6)
33/34*	Converted, called, and commissioned on the way to Damascus (Acts 9:1–19; 22:6–11; 26:12–18; Gal. 1:15–16)
33/34–36/37	Stays in Damascus a short time (Acts 9:19b); leaves for Arabia (2 Cor. 11:32; Gal. 1:17); returns to Damascus (Gal. 1:17; Acts 9:20–22?); escapes through city wall to avoid arrest (Acts 9:23–24; 2 Cor. 11:32–33)
36/37*	Meets with Peter, sees James, in Jerusalem (Acts 9:26–30; Gal. 1:18) Hellenists seek to kill him; flees to Tarsus (Acts 9:28–30; Gal. 1:21)
37–45	Ministers in Syria/Cilicia (2 Cor. 11:22–27?)
44–47*	Ministers with Barnabas in Antioch (Acts 11:25–26) Second Visit to Jerusalem; time of famine (Acts 11:27–30; Gal. 2:1–10)
46–47	First Missionary Journey (Acts 13:4–14:26): 1.5 years?
48*	With Barnabas, spends “no little time” in Antioch (Acts 14:28; Gal. 2:11–14); writes Galatians
48–49*	Returns to Jerusalem for the apostolic council (Acts 15); Paul and Barnabas return to Antioch (Acts 15:30–33), but dispute over John Mark causes them to part ways (Acts 15:36–41)
48/49–51*	Second Missionary Journey (Acts 15:36–18:22): 2.5 years?
49	Paul and Silas travel to southern Galatia through Asia Minor, on to Macedonia (Philippi [1 Thess. 2:2]); Thessalonica [1 Thess. 2:2; Phil. 4:15–16]; and Berea [Acts 17:10–15]), and then to Achaia (Athens [1 Thess. 3:1] and Corinth [2 Cor. 11:7–9])
49–51*	Spends 1.5 years in Corinth (Acts 18:11); appears before Gallio (Acts 18:12–17); writes 1 and 2 Thessalonians
51	Returns to Jerusalem? (Acts 18:22)
52–57*	Third Missionary Journey (Acts 18:23–21:17): 5 years?
52	Travels to Antioch, spends “some time”; travels through Galatia and Phrygia (Acts 18:23)
52–55	Arrives in Ephesus (Acts 19:1; 1 Cor. 16:8); ministers for three years (Acts 20:31) and writes 1 Corinthians; makes brief, “painful visit” to Corinth (2 Cor. 2:1), then returns to Ephesus and writes “severe letter” (now lost) to Corinth (2 Cor. 2:3–4; 7:8–16)
55–56*	Travels north to Macedonia, meets Titus (Acts 20:1; 2 Cor. 2:12–13); writes 2 Corinthians
57*	Winters in Corinth (Acts 20:2–3; 2 Cor. 9:4), writes to the Romans from Corinth; travels to Jerusalem; is arrested (Acts 21:27–36)
57–59	Transferred as prisoner to Caesarea, stays for two years (Acts 24:27)
60*	Voyage to Rome; shipwrecked, spends three months on Malta (Acts 28:11); finally arrives in Rome
62*	Under house-arrest in Rome (Acts 28:30–31), writes Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Philemon
62–67	Released from house-arrest in Rome, travels to Spain (?), writes 1 Timothy (from Macedonia?) and Titus (from Nicopolis); is rearrested, writes 2 Timothy from Rome, is martyred

* denotes approximate date; / signifies either/or

The Authentication of Paul’s Letters

In 2:2 Paul warns against letters that claim to come from him but do not. In 11 places in his letters Paul either identifies himself or gives his signature. This supports the conclusion that all of the NT letters attributed to Paul are in fact authentic, rather than having been written by someone else in Paul’s name.

1 Cor. 16:21	I, Paul, write this greeting with my own hand
2 Cor. 10:1	I, Paul, myself entreat you
Gal. 5:2	Look: I, Paul, say to you
Gal. 6:11	See with what large letters I am writing to you with my own hand
Eph. 3:1	I, Paul, a prisoner of Christ Jesus
Col. 1:23	of which I, Paul, became a minister
Col. 4:18	I, Paul, write this greeting with my own hand
1 Thess. 2:18	we wanted to come to you—I, Paul, again and again
2 Thess. 2:2	not to be . . . alarmed . . . by . . . a letter seeming to be from us
2 Thess. 3:17	I, Paul, write this greeting with my own hand. This is the sign of genuineness in every letter of mine; it is the way I write
Philem. 19	I, Paul, write this with my own hand

The Epistles

Book	Author	Date	Recipients	Place of Writing
James	James	40–45	Jewish Christians in or near Palestine	Jerusalem?
Galatians	Paul	48	South Galatian churches	Syrian Antioch
1 Thessalonians	Paul	49–51	Church in Thessalonica	Corinth
2 Thessalonians	Paul	49–51	Church in Thessalonica	Corinth
1 Corinthians	Paul	53–55	Church in Corinth	Ephesus
2 Corinthians	Paul	55–56	Church in Corinth	Macedonia
Romans	Paul	57	Church in Rome	Corinth
Philippians	Paul	62	Church in Philippi	Rome
Colossians	Paul	62	Church in Colossae	Rome
Philemon	Paul	62	Philemon	Rome
Ephesians	Paul	62	Churches in Asia Minor (circular letter?)	Rome
1 Timothy	Paul	62–64	Timothy	Macedonia?
Titus	Paul	62–64	Titus	Nicopolis
1 Peter	Peter	62–63	Churches in Roman provinces in Asia Minor	Rome
2 Peter	Peter	64–67	Churches in Roman provinces in Asia Minor?	Rome
2 Timothy	Paul	64–67	Timothy	Rome
Jude	Jude	Mid–60s	Jewish Christians in Egypt? Asia Minor? Antioch?	Unknown
Hebrews	Unknown	60–70	Jewish Christians in Rome or in or near Palestine	Unknown
1 John	John	85–95	Churches near Ephesus?	Ephesus
2 John	John	85–95	Church or churches near Ephesus	Ephesus
3 John	John	85–95	Gaius	Ephesus

The Believer’s Apparent (Temporal) Defeat and Actual (Spiritual) Victory

The Believer’s Apparent (Temporal) Defeat	The Believer’s Actual (Spiritual) Victory
For we were so utterly burdened beyond our strength that we despaired of life itself. Indeed, we felt that we had received the sentence of death (1:8–9).	He delivered us from such a deadly peril, and he will deliver us. On him we have set our hope that he will deliver us again (1:10).
When I came to Troas to preach the gospel of Christ . . . my spirit was not at rest . . . (2:12–13).	But thanks be to God, who in Christ always leads us in triumphal procession . . . (2:14).
We are afflicted in every way, but not crushed; perplexed, but not driven to despair; persecuted, but not forsaken; struck down, but not destroyed; always carrying in the body the death of Jesus, so that the life of Jesus may also be manifested in our bodies (4:8–10).	Though our outer self is wasting away, our inner self is being renewed day by day. For this light momentary affliction is preparing for us an eternal weight of glory beyond all comparison, as we look not to the things that are seen but to the things that are unseen (4:16–18).
A thorn was given me in the flesh, a messenger of Satan to harass me, to keep me from becoming conceited (12:7).	But [the Lord] said to me, “My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness” (12:9).

Weakness and Power (or Strength) in 1–2 Corinthians

Verse	Weakness	Power (or Strength)
1 Cor. 1:25	the weakness of God	is stronger than men
1 Cor. 1:27	God chose what is weak	to shame the strong
1 Cor. 2:3, 5	in weakness and in fear	but in the power of God
1 Cor. 15:43	sown in weakness	raised in power
2 Cor. 12:9	I will boast . . . of my weaknesses	so that the power of Christ may rest upon me
2 Cor. 13:3	not weak in dealing with you	but . . . powerful among you
2 Cor. 13:4	he was crucified in weakness	but lives by the power of God
2 Cor. 13:4	we also are weak in him	but . . . live with him by the power of God
2 Cor. 13:9	we are glad when we are weak	and you are strong

The Sufficiency of God in 2 Corinthians

2:16	Who is sufficient for these things?
3:5	Not that we are sufficient in ourselves . . .
3:5	but our sufficiency is from God
12:9	“My grace is sufficient for you . . .”

Study Notes

2 Cor. 10:1 the meekness and gentleness of Christ. Christ’s willingness to allow time for repentance before he returns to judge (see 2 Pet. 3:8–10). I who am humble when . . . with you, but bold toward you when I am away. Paul probably quotes accusations made by his opponents (see 2 Cor. 10:10).

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The Authentication of Paul’s Letters

1 Cor. 16:21	I, Paul, write this greeting with my own hand
2 Cor. 10:1	I, Paul, myself entreat you
Gal. 5:2	Look: I, Paul, say to you
Gal. 6:11	See with what large letters I am writing to you with my own hand
Eph. 3:1	I, Paul, a prisoner of Christ Jesus
Col. 1:23	of which I, Paul, became a minister
Col. 4:18	I, Paul, write this greeting with my own hand
1 Thess. 2:18	we wanted to come to you—I, Paul, again and again
2 Thess. 2:2	not to be . . . alarmed . . . by . . . a letter seeming to be from us
2 Thess. 3:17	I, Paul, write this greeting with my own hand. This is the sign of genuineness in every letter of mine; it is the way I write
Philem. 19	I, Paul, write this with my own hand

Study Notes

2 Cor. 10:3–4 The weapons of Paul’s warfare are not physical but spiritual, such as prayer, the Word of God, faith, and the power of the Holy Spirit. By the Spirit Paul tears down the strongholds of wrong thinking and behavior in the lives of those who resist his authority.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 10:8 for building you up and not for destroying you. “Building up” the church is a common Pauline description of new covenant ministry (see Rom. 14:19; 15:2; 1 Cor. 3:9–14; 14:3–5).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 10:1–11 Paul responds to criticism of his humble appearance (vv. 1–6) and his refusal to use impressive public speaking techniques (vv. 7–11; see 1 Cor. 2:1–5).

2 Cor. 10:9–11 absent . . . present. See note on v. 1.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 10:12 Paul’s opponents recommend one another by comparing their abilities, spiritual gifts, and experiences. These are irrelevant for establishing apostolic authority in a church.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 10:13–14 In contrast to his opponents, Paul does not boast beyond limits (that is, beyond the sphere of his God-given apostolic authority). His apostolic authority in Corinth (the area of influence God assigned to us) was based on God sending Paul to establish the church in Corinth (to reach . . . you). See 1 Cor. 4:15; 2 Cor. 3:1–3.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 10:15–16 lands beyond. Paul’s aim is to plant churches in areas where the gospel has never been proclaimed (see Rom. 10:14–17). These false teachers try to change the gospel in places where it has already been established (another’s area).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 10:12–18 Paul now turns to reestablishing his authority in Corinth by (1) defining the proper standard for apostolic authority and (2) demonstrating that his ministry actually meets that standard, while his opponents’ ministry does not.

2 Cor. 10:17–18 Paul supports his boasting as an apostle (vv. 12–16) by citing Jer. 9:23–24 (compare 1 Cor. 1:31). Since all human abilities and achievements are gifts from God, the only true basis for boasting is to boast in the Lord, that is, boasting in what the Lord provides, not in one’s accomplishments. The Lord commends his people by working in and through their lives (see 2 Cor. 3:1; 4:2; 5:12; 6:4).

2 Corinthians Fact #8: Problems in Corinth

Fact: Problems in Corinth

Study Notes

2 Cor. 11:2 As their “father” in the faith (see 1 Cor. 4:15; 2 Cor. 6:13; 12:14), Paul feels the same divine jealousy that God felt for Israel (Ex. 34:14). In Jewish culture, when a daughter was betrothed, her father guaranteed that he would present her as a pure virgin at her wedding (Deut. 22:13–24; see 2 Cor. 6:14–7:1). Here the “betrothal” was the Corinthians’ conversion through Paul’s ministry. The husband is Christ, and the “wedding day” is the day of Christ’s return (see 1:14; Eph. 5:27; Col. 1:22; Rev. 19:6–9). Paul’s picture of the church as engaged to Christ (compare Eph. 5:25–27; Rev. 19:7–8) carries on the OT view of Israel as committed to God.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 11:3 See Gen. 3:1–13.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 11:4 different gospel. The “gospel” of Paul’s opponents may have promised health and wealth but no suffering. This was contrary to Paul’s message and experiences (4:5; 5:14–15, 18–19).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 11:5–6 super-apostles. This is probably a sarcastic description of the false apostles troubling the Corinthian church (see vv. 4, 13–15; see also 12:11).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 11:7 Paul supported himself in Corinth. Thus he preached God’s gospel . . . free of charge for the sake of the Corinthians. This exalted the Corinthian believers but was a humbling experience for Paul. It required physical suffering as a result of his hard work and low pay. It also required accepting the disdain that the wealthy had for manual laborers (see 1 Cor. 4:11–13; 9:4–18; 15:10; 2 Cor. 11:23).

2 Corinthians Fact #9: Preaching for free

Fact: Preaching for free

Study Notes

2 Cor. 11:8–9a I robbed other churches is an example of hyperbole. Paul received financial help from Macedonia to preach the gospel in Corinth.

2 Corinthians Fact #9: Preaching for free

Fact: Preaching for free

Study Notes

2 Cor. 11:9–10 Macedonia. Northern Greece, where Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea were located. Achaia. Southern Greece, where Corinth was located.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 11:13 false apostles. See 2 Pet. 2:1–3 and notes.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 11:9b–14 Paul refused to accept money from the Corinthians because he had to distinguish his ministry from that of the false apostles. They labored in Corinth out of greed (compare 2:17).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 11:15 On judgment that will correspond to one’s deeds, see 5:10; Rom. 2:6; Gal. 6:7–9; 2 Tim. 4:14.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 11:16–18 In his arrogance the fool boasts in himself, not in the Lord (see 10:17–18). He is condemned for this (see, e.g., Ps. 14:1; Prov. 9:13–18). Almost like a fool, Paul is about to boast a little in his own identity in order to make his point (see 2 Cor. 11:21b–23). Paul recognizes that he does so not as the Lord would (that is, not following a direct command from the Lord). He does so only because in Corinth many boast according to the flesh.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 11:20–21a strikes you in the face. A reference to the Jewish opponents insulting the Gentile Corinthians, probably by literally striking them (see John 18:22; Acts 23:2). All five actions listed in 2 Cor. 11:20 are signs of an arrogant attitude on the part of these false leaders.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 11:21b–23a Hebrews refers to Jewish ethnicity; Israelites refers to being God’s chosen people under the old covenant. Offspring of Abraham means being part of the new covenant people of God and a true descendant of Abraham (see Rom. 9:6–9; 11:1–6; Gal. 3:29). Because he is reluctant to speak of himself in this way, Paul downplays his qualifications. He says that he is speaking as a fool (2 Cor. 11:21b) and talking like a madman (v. 23a).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 11:24 forty lashes less one. The Jewish punishment of 39 lashes was given by the synagogue for false teaching, blasphemy, and serious lawbreaking. All of these charges could have been applied to Paul’s preaching of the gospel, especially to Gentiles (Acts 9:20; 13:5, 14–43; etc.; see note on Acts 5:40). It was the most severe beating allowed by Scripture (Deut. 25:1–3).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 11:25–26 beaten with rods. This was the Gentile punishment for disturbing the peace (Acts 16:22–23, 35–38; 22:25–29; 1 Thess. 2:2). Once, in Lystra, Paul was stoned (Acts 14:5–19). Three times I was shipwrecked. This would not include the shipwreck described in Acts 27, which occurred after Paul wrote this.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 11:28 anxiety for all the churches. See 2:12–13.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 11:30 God triumphs through human weakness, as he did through Christ’s crucifixion (1 Cor. 1:27; 2 Cor. 12:9; 13:4).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 11:32–33 Having to flee in a basket was a striking example of Paul’s “weakness” (v. 30).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 12:2–3 I know a man . . . this man. Paul’s hesitancy to boast of his visions is reflected in his use of the third person (as if it had happened to someone else). the third heaven (that is, the highest; see 1 Kings 8:27). This phrase reflects a distinction between (1) the atmosphere where birds can be seen to fly, (2) the higher area where the sun, moon, and stars can be seen, and (3) the unseen realm where God dwells (paradise). fourteen years ago. Sometime between A.D. 42–44, before his first missionary journey (Acts 9:29–30; 11:25–26). There is no other known record of this vision.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 12:7 a thorn was given me (by God, who is sovereign over all things) in the flesh, a messenger of Satan. The nature of this “thorn” or “messenger” is uncertain. The most frequently proposed possibilities include: (1) Paul’s inner psychological struggles (such as grief over his earlier persecution of the church, sorrow over Israel’s unbelief, or continuing temptations); (2) Paul’s opponents, who continued to persecute him (compare Num. 33:55 and Ezek. 28:24, where thorns refer to Israel’s enemies); (3) some kind of physical affliction (possibly poor eyesight, malaria, or severe migraine headaches); or (4) some kind of demonic harassment (“a messenger of Satan”). Most commentators prefer the third view, since “thorn in the flesh” would seem to suggest a physical condition.

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New Testament Timeline

5 B.C.*	Jesus is born in Bethlehem.
4 B.C.	Jesus’ family flees to Egypt to escape from Herod’s plan to kill Jesus (Matt. 2:13–18); Herod dies; Judas (of Sepphoris) and others rebel, requiring the Syrian Governor Varus to intervene throughout Palestine; Sepphoris, a city four miles from Nazareth, is destroyed by Roman soldiers; Judea, Samaria, and Idumea are given to Herod’s son, Archelaus; Galilee and Perea are given to his son Antipas; Jesus’ family, after returning from Egypt, resides in Nazareth (Matt. 2:19–23), a small village in southern Galilee.
A.D. 6	Archelaus is exiled for incompetence; Judea becomes a Roman province; Judas the Galilean (of Gamla) leads a revolt against the tax census; the governor of Syria, Quirinius (A.D. 6–7), appoints Annas high priest (6–15).
8*	Jesus (age 12) interacts with the teachers in the temple (Luke 2:41–50).
8*–28/30	Jesus works as a carpenter in Nazareth (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3) and probably in neighboring villages and Sepphoris, which was being rebuilt.
28–29*	John the Baptist begins his ministry around the Jordan River (John 1:19).
28–30*	Jesus begins his ministry in Judea, but soon focuses his efforts in Galilee. In Jerusalem, Pharisees (like Gamaliel) train disciples (like Paul) in their tradition. They send a delegation to Galilee, but the delegation rejects Jesus’ teaching. In Alexandria, Philo (20 B.C.–A.D. 50) attempts to unify Greek philosophy with Hebrew Scripture.
33 (or 30)	Jesus returns to Judea, is crucified, and resurrected. James the brother of Jesus becomes a believer after witnessing the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor. 15:7; Acts 12:17). Jesus ascends to the Father’s right hand (Acts 1). Jesus’ first followers receive the Holy Spirit at Pentecost and begin to proclaim the gospel (Acts 2).
33/34*	Paul witnesses the resurrected Lord on the way to Damascus and is commissioned as an apostle to the nations (Acts 9; Gal. 1:15–16).
34–37	Paul ministers in Damascus and Arabia (Acts 9:19–22; 26:20; Gal. 1:16–18).
36	Pilate loses his position for incompetence.
36/37*	Paul meets with Peter in Jerusalem (Acts 9:26–30; Gal. 1:18).
37–45	Paul ministers in Syria, Tarsus, and Cilicia (Acts 9:30; Gal. 1:21).
38*	Peter witnesses to Cornelius (Acts 10).
39	Antipas is exiled.
40–45*	James writes his letter to believers outside Palestine (see James 1:1).
41–44	Agrippa, Herod the Great’s grandson, rules Palestine; he kills James the brother of John (Acts 12:2) and imprisons Peter (Acts 12:3).
42–44	Paul receives his “thorn in the flesh” (2 Cor. 12:7).
44	Peter leaves Jerusalem; Agrippa is killed by an “angel of the Lord” (Acts 12:23).
44–46	Theudas persuades many Jews to sell their possessions and follow him into the wilderness where he claimed he would miraculously divide the Jordan River; Roman procurator Fadus dispatches his cavalry and beheads the would-be messiah.
44–47*	Paul’s Second Visit to Jerusalem; time of famine (Acts 11:27–30; Gal. 2:1–10).
46–47	Paul’s First Missionary Journey (with Barnabas) from Antioch to Cyprus, Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, and Lystra (Acts 13:4–14:26).
46–48	Roman procurator Tiberius Alexander crucifies two sons (Jacob and Simon) of Judas the Galilean.
48*	Paul writes Galatians, perhaps from Antioch (see Acts 14:26–28).
48–49*	Paul and Peter return to Jerusalem for the Apostolic Council, which, with the assistance of James, frees Gentile believers from the requirement of circumcision in opposition to Pharisaic believers (Acts 15:1–29); Paul and Barnabas return to Antioch (Acts 15:30) but split over a dispute about John Mark (Acts 15:36–40).
48/49–51*	Paul’s Second Missionary Journey (with Silas) from Antioch to Syria, Cilicia, southern Galatia, Macedonia, notably Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea; and then on to Achaia, notably Athens and Corinth (Acts 15:36–18:22).
49	Claudius expels Jews from Rome because of conflicts about Jesus (Acts 18:2); Paul befriends two refugees, Priscilla and Aquila, in Corinth (Acts 18:2–3).
49–51*	Paul writes 1–2 Thessalonians from Corinth (Acts 18:1, 11; also compare Acts 18:5 with 1 Thess. 1:8).
51	Paul appears before Gallio, proconsul of Achaia (Acts 18:12–17).
50–54*	Peter comes to Rome.
52–57*	Paul’s Third Missionary Journey from Antioch to Galatia, Phrygia, Ephesus, Macedonia, Greece (Acts 18:23–21:17).
52–55	Paul ministers in Ephesus (Acts 19:1–20).
53–55*	Mark writes his Gospel, containing Peter’s memories of Jesus; perhaps within a decade, Matthew publishes his Gospel, which relies on Mark and other sources. Paul writes 1 Corinthians from Ephesus (Acts 19:10).

54	Claudius dies (edict exiling Jews repealed); Priscilla and Aquila return to Rome and host a church in their home (see Rom. 16:3–5).
54–68	Nero reigns.
55–56*	Paul writes 2 Corinthians from Macedonia (Acts 20:1, 3; 2 Cor. 1:16; 2:13; 7:5; 8:1; 9:2, 4; see 1 Cor. 16:5).
57*	Paul winters in Corinth and writes Romans (Acts 20:3; see Rom. 16:1–2; also see Rom. 16:23 with 1 Cor. 1:14); travels to Jerusalem (Acts 21:1–16), visits with James the brother of Jesus (Acts 21:17–26), and is arrested (Acts 21:27–36; 22:22–29).
57–59	Paul is imprisoned and transferred to Caesarea (Acts 23:23–24, 33–34).
60	Paul begins voyage to Rome (Acts 27:1–2); he is shipwrecked for three months on the island of Malta (Acts 27:39–28:10).
60–70*	Letter to the Hebrews is written.
62	James the brother of the Lord is executed by the Sadducean high priest Ananus.
62–63*	Peter writes his first letter (1 Peter) from Rome (1 Pet. 5:13).
62*	Paul arrives in Rome and remains under house arrest (Acts 28:16–31); he writes Ephesians (see verses for Colossians), Philippians (Phil. 1:7, 13, 17; 4:22), Colossians (Col. 4:3, 10, 18; see Acts 27:2 with Col. 4:10), Philemon (see Philem. 23 with Col. 1:7; Philem. 2 with Col. 4:17; Philem. 24 with Col. 4:10; also see Col. 4:9). Luke, Paul’s physician and companion (see Col. 4:14), writes Luke and Acts.
62–64	Paul is released, extends his mission (probably reaching Spain), writes 1 Timothy from Macedonia (see 1 Tim. 1:3) and Titus from Nicopolis (Titus 3:12); he is rearrested in Rome (2 Tim. 1:16–17).
63–64	Work on the temple complex is completed.
64 (July 19)	Fire in Rome; Nero blames and kills many Christians.
64–67*	Peter writes his second letter ( 2 Peter). Jude writes his letter. Paul writes 2 Timothy (see 2 Tim. 4:6–8). Paul and Peter are martyred in Rome.
66	First Jewish-Roman War begins with a riot between Greeks and Jews at Caesarea; Roman procurator Gesius Florus (A.D. 64–66) is murdered and a Roman garrison wiped out; Menahem, son or grandson of Judas the Galilean, murders the high priest Ananias and seizes control of the temple; Nero dispatches Vespasian with three legions.
67*	Romans destroy the Qumran community, who beforehand hid the so-called Dead Sea Scrolls in nearby caves; the church in Jerusalem flees to Pella (Matt. 24:15–16; Mark 13:14; Luke 21:20–22); John migrates to Ephesus with Mary, Jesus’ mother.
68	Nero commits suicide; year of the three emperors.
69	Rebellion quelled in Galilee and Samaria; Vespasian summoned back to Rome to become emperor.
70 (Aug. 30)	Titus, Vespasian’s son, after a five-month siege of Jerusalem, destroys the temple after desecrating it; the temple’s menorah, Torah, and veil are removed and later put on display in a victory parade in Rome; the influence of the Sadducees ends; the Pharisee Johanan ben Zakkai escapes and convinces the Romans to allow him and others to settle in Jamnia, where they found a school.
73 (May 2)*	Before Roman general Silva breaches the fortress atop Masada following a two-year siege, 936 Jewish rebels commit suicide.
75	Titus has an affair with the Jewish princess Berenice, sister of Agrippa II (Acts 25:13, 23), whom he later abandons because of the scandal.
77	Pliny the Elder writes Natural History.
77–78	Josephus publishes Jewish War in Rome.
79	Pompeii and Herculaneum are destroyed by eruption of Vesuvius; Pliny the Elder dies attempting to investigate.
81	The Arch of Titus, celebrating his destruction of the temple, is erected in Rome.
81–96	Domitian, Titus’s brother, persecutes Christians among the Roman nobility, including his own relatives Clemens and Domitilla.
85–95*	John writes his letters (1–3 John), probably in Ephesus.
89–95*	John writes his Gospel, probably in Ephesus.
93–94	Josephus publishes Jewish Antiquities in Rome.
94	Domitian exiles philosophers from Rome.
95*	Amidst persecution, Clement, a leader in the Roman church, writes his Letter to the Corinthians (1 Clement) appealing for peace between the young men and elders.
95–96*	Exiled by Domitian to Patmos, John writes Revelation (Rev. 1:9).
96–98	Nerva, the first of five “good” emperors, ends official persecution.

* denotes approximate date; / signifies either/or

Ephesians Fact #3: Visions

Fact: Visions

Study Notes

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The Believer’s Apparent (Temporal) Defeat and Actual (Spiritual) Victory

The Believer’s Apparent (Temporal) Defeat	The Believer’s Actual (Spiritual) Victory
For we were so utterly burdened beyond our strength that we despaired of life itself. Indeed, we felt that we had received the sentence of death (1:8–9).	He delivered us from such a deadly peril, and he will deliver us. On him we have set our hope that he will deliver us again (1:10).
When I came to Troas to preach the gospel of Christ . . . my spirit was not at rest . . . (2:12–13).	But thanks be to God, who in Christ always leads us in triumphal procession . . . (2:14).
We are afflicted in every way, but not crushed; perplexed, but not driven to despair; persecuted, but not forsaken; struck down, but not destroyed; always carrying in the body the death of Jesus, so that the life of Jesus may also be manifested in our bodies (4:8–10).	Though our outer self is wasting away, our inner self is being renewed day by day. For this light momentary affliction is preparing for us an eternal weight of glory beyond all comparison, as we look not to the things that are seen but to the things that are unseen (4:16–18).
A thorn was given me in the flesh, a messenger of Satan to harass me, to keep me from becoming conceited (12:7).	But [the Lord] said to me, “My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness” (12:9).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 12:9–10 My grace is sufficient. Paul says that God’s grace “is sufficient” (in the present tense). This emphasizes the constant availability of God’s grace, for Paul and for every believer (see Rom. 8:31–39). my power is made perfect in weakness. Paul’s earthly weaknesses (not his revelations) were God’s way of demonstrating his power. This is the basis of Paul’s self-defense throughout 2 Corinthians.

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Weakness and Power (or Strength) in 1–2 Corinthians

Verse	Weakness	Power (or Strength)
1 Cor. 1:25	the weakness of God	is stronger than men
1 Cor. 1:27	God chose what is weak	to shame the strong
1 Cor. 2:3, 5	in weakness and in fear	but in the power of God
1 Cor. 15:43	sown in weakness	raised in power
2 Cor. 12:9	I will boast . . . of my weaknesses	so that the power of Christ may rest upon me
2 Cor. 13:3	not weak in dealing with you	but . . . powerful among you
2 Cor. 13:4	he was crucified in weakness	but lives by the power of God
2 Cor. 13:4	we also are weak in him	but . . . live with him by the power of God
2 Cor. 13:9	we are glad when we are weak	and you are strong

Study Notes

2 Cor. 12:11 super-apostles. See note on 11:5–6. even though I am nothing. Paul was the “least of the apostles,” having persecuted the church (1 Cor. 15:8–9). He owes everything to the grace and call of God in his life (1 Cor. 15:10; 2 Cor. 3:4–6).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 12:12 the signs of a true apostle . . . among you with utmost patience. Refers to the work of the Spirit through Paul’s ministry. This work is seen in the conversion and gifting of the Corinthians (3:1–3). It is also seen in Paul’s Christlike behavior (6:4; 10:1–12:10). with signs and wonders and mighty works. A threefold description of miraculous acts that accompanied and proved an apostle’s ministry (see Rom. 15:18–19; Gal. 3:1–5). These terms tie God’s saving work under the new covenant to the signs and wonders at the exodus. This shows the unity within redemptive history (e.g., Ex. 3:20; 7:3; 10:1–2; Deut. 4:34; Ps. 105:27–36; see the Overview of the Bible).

Overview of the Bible

How does the Bible as a whole fit together? The events recorded in the Bible took place over a span of thousands of years and in several different cultural settings. What is their unifying thread?

One unifying thread in the Bible is its divine authorship. Every book of the Bible is God’s word. The events recorded in the Bible are there because God wanted them to be recorded, and he had them recorded with his people and their instruction in mind: “For whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that through endurance and through the encouragement of the Scriptures we might have hope” (Rom. 15:4).

God’s Plan for History

God also has a unified plan for history (Eph. 1:10, 12). The work of Christ on earth, especially his crucifixion and resurrection, is the climax of history. It is the great turning point. The present era looks back on Christ’s completed work but also forward to the consummation of his work when he will come again in the new heavens and earth.

God’s Promises and Predictions

The Old Testament directly points forward to Christ through promises of God’s salvation. God gave some specific promises in the Old Testament relating to the coming of Christ as the Messiah, the Savior in the line of David. But God often gives more general promises concerning a future great day of salvation, without spelling out all the details of how he will accomplish it. Sometimes the promises take explicit form (e.g., the coming of the Messiah), and sometimes they take symbolic form (e.g., the animal sacrifices). All of the Old Testament promises find their “yes” in Jesus (2 Cor. 1:20).

God’s Warnings and Curses

God’s relation to people also includes warnings, threatenings, and cursings, which anticipate and point forward to Christ in two distinct ways. First, Christ is the Lamb of God who bore the curse of sin on the cross (John 1:29; 2 Cor. 5:21; Gal. 3:13; 1 Pet. 2:24). Every instance of the wrath of God against sin, and his punishment of sin, looks forward to the wrath that was poured out on Christ on the cross. Second, Christ will wage war against sin and exterminate it at his second coming. All earlier judgments against sin anticipate the final judgment.

God’s Covenant Commitment and Instruction

The promises of God in the Old Testament come in the context not only of God’s commitment to his people but also of instruction about the people’s commitment and obligations to God. When God makes a covenant with man, God is the sovereign, so he specifies the obligations on both sides. “I will be their God” is the fundamental obligation on God’s side, while “they shall be my people” is the fundamental obligation on the human side.

For example, in the first call of Abram (Gen. 12:1–2) God’s commitment takes the form of promises, blessings, and curses. The promises and blessings point forward to Christ, who is the fulfillment of the promises and the source of final blessings. The curses point forward to Christ both in his bearing the curse and in his execution of judgment and curse against sin, especially at the second coming.

Christ fulfilled the obligations of God’s covenants through perfect obedience (Heb. 5:8), receiving the reward of obedience in his resurrection and ascension (Phil. 2:9–10). By dealing with God’s wrath against sin, Christ reconciled believers to God, bringing about the intimacy with God that all of the Old Testament covenants anticipated.

Christ Is the Offspring of Abraham and the Last Adam

God’s promises to Abraham were the foundation for the nation of Israel. Abraham was obligated to walk blamelessly before God (Gen. 17:1). But only Christ is without sin (Heb. 4:15), making him the ultimate offspring to whom the other offspring all point (Gal. 3:16). Through Christ, believers are united to him and thereby themselves become “Abraham’s offspring” (Gal. 3:29). Believers, Jews and Gentiles alike, become heirs to the promises of God made to Abraham and his offspring (Gal. 3:28–29).

Christ is not only the offspring of Abraham, but—reaching back farther in time to an earlier promise of God—the offspring of the woman: “I will put enmity between you [the serpent] and the woman, and between your offspring and her offspring; he shall bruise your head, and you shall bruise his heel” (Gen. 3:15). The conquest over the serpent, and therefore the conquest of evil and the reversal of its effects, is to take place through the offspring of the woman. One can trace this offspring down from Eve through Seth and his godly descendants, through Noah, and down to Abraham, where God’s promise takes the specific form of offspring for Abraham. Thus Christ is not only the offspring of Abraham but the last Adam (1 Cor. 15:45–49). Like Adam, he represents all who belong to him. And he reverses the effects of Adam’s fall.

Shadows, Prefigures, and “Types” of Christ

The Old Testament anticipates Christ the Savior by “shadows” and “types”—examples, symbols, pictures—of the things that were to come (see 1 Cor. 10:6, 11; Heb. 8:5). Animal sacrifices in the Old Testament prefigure the final sacrifice of Christ. The temple, as a dwelling place for God, prefigured Christ, who is the final “dwelling place” of God, and through whom God is with his people (Matt. 1:23; John 2:21). The Old Testament priests were types of Christ, the final high priest (Heb. 7:11–8:7).

The fulfillment of all these Old Testament shadows and types takes place preeminently in Christ (2 Cor. 1:20; Eph. 1:10). But in the New Testament those people who are “in Christ,” who place their trust in him and experience fellowship with his person and his blessings, receive the benefits of what he has accomplished. Therefore one can also find anticipations or “types” in the Old Testament that point forward to the New Testament church, the people in the New Testament who belong to Christ.

Some Old Testament symbols also may point forward especially to the consummation of salvation that takes place in the new heaven and the new earth yet to come (2 Pet. 3:13; Rev. 21:1–22:5). Old Testament Jerusalem prefigured the new Jerusalem that will come “down out of heaven from God” (Rev. 21:2).

Christ Is the Mediator

Sinful man needs a mediator who will approach God on his behalf. Jesus Christ, who is both God and man, and who is innocent of sin, is the only one who can mediate (1 Tim. 2:5–6) and the only one who can save (Acts 4:12).

All the instances of salvation and mediation in the Old Testament prefigure Christ. Prophets bring God’s word to his people. Godly kings bring God’s rule to bear on the people. Priests represent the people in coming before God’s presence. Christ is the prophet, king, and priest who fulfills all three functions in a final way (Heb. 1:1–3).

We can also look at wise men, who bring God’s wisdom to others; warriors, who bring God’s deliverance from enemies; and singers, who bring praise to God on behalf of the people and speak of God to the people. Covenants bring God’s word to the people. The temple brings God’s presence to the people. Animal sacrifices bring God’s forgiveness to the people. In reading the Bible, we should look for ways in which God brings his word and his presence to people through the means he establishes. All these means perform a mediatorial role, and because there is only one mediator, clearly they all point to Christ.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 12:1–13 Because his opponents boast in their spiritual experiences as well as in their ethnic identity, Paul is also forced to boast, however foolishly, in his own visions and revelations (see 11:1, 16; 12:11). But then in vv. 7–10 he returns one last time to boasting in his weakness, revealing the presence of a “thorn in the flesh” as the appropriate means for glorifying God’s grace and power in his life and ministry. In vv. 9–10 he clearly states the principle behind this aspect of his self-commendation (1:3–11; 2:14–17; 4:7–12; 6:3–10; 11:23–33): Paul’s earthly weaknesses, not his revelations, are to be the platform for demonstrating the Lord’s power and grace.

2 Cor. 12:13 With playful irony, Paul says that the only wrong he did the Corinthians was not asking them for money (see 11:9b–14 for the reason).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 12:14–15 for the third time I am ready to come to you. On his first visit Paul planted the church at Corinth (Acts 18:1–18). His second visit was the “painful visit” (see 2 Cor. 2:1 and note on 2:1–2).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 12:16–18 crafty . . . deceit . . . take advantage. Paul rejects the idea that he used the collection to take money from the Corinthians. There is no evidence for such a charge.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 12:20 find you not as I wish. That is, still unrepentant, rebellious, and continuing in their sinful lifestyles. All of these would indicate that they are not genuine believers (see 13:5). find me not as you wish. If the Corinthians do not repent, Paul will have to exercise God’s judgment. He cannot wait patiently for their repentance as in the past (see 1:23–2:4).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 12:21 God may humble Paul before the Corinthians by using Paul as an instrument of their judgment. This will mean Paul may have to mourn over the rebellious.

2 Corinthians Fact #8: Problems in Corinth

Fact: Problems in Corinth

Study Notes

2 Cor. 13:1 the third time. See note on 12:14–15. evidence of two or three witnesses. The legal requirement for accepting evidence at a trial (Deut. 19:15).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 13:2 not spare. Paul did not specify what form the discipline would take. Perhaps he did not know exactly, but it certainly would not be pleasant (see Acts 5:1–11; 13:8–11; 1 Cor. 5:4–5).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 13:3–4 Following the pattern of Christ’s own weakness (1:5; 8:9; Phil. 2:7–8), Paul too has been weak for the sake of God’s people. This showed them God’s Spirit and glory through his own sufferings (2 Cor. 1:3–11; 2:14–16a; 4:7–15; 6:3–10; 11:23–33; 12:7–10). But also like Christ, Paul will exercise the power of God in judging the Corinthians’ behavior and beliefs (see 1 Cor. 5:12–13; 6:1–3).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 13:5 The test to see if Christ is in the Corinthians will be their response to Paul and his call to repent. God’s message and the messenger are one (5:18–6:2).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 13:7–9 Paul desires the Corinthians’ restoration even at this late hour.

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Weakness and Power (or Strength) in 1–2 Corinthians

Verse	Weakness	Power (or Strength)
1 Cor. 1:25	the weakness of God	is stronger than men
1 Cor. 1:27	God chose what is weak	to shame the strong
1 Cor. 2:3, 5	in weakness and in fear	but in the power of God
1 Cor. 15:43	sown in weakness	raised in power
2 Cor. 12:9	I will boast . . . of my weaknesses	so that the power of Christ may rest upon me
2 Cor. 13:3	not weak in dealing with you	but . . . powerful among you
2 Cor. 13:4	he was crucified in weakness	but lives by the power of God
2 Cor. 13:4	we also are weak in him	but . . . live with him by the power of God
2 Cor. 13:9	we are glad when we are weak	and you are strong

Study Notes

2 Cor. 10:1–13:10 Paul’s Appeal to the Rebellious Minority in Corinth. In the third major section of his letter, Paul directly appeals to those who are still rejecting his gospel and apostolic authority. During his third visit, Paul will be forced to judge those who have not repented (10:6; 12:20–21; 13:1–10).

2 Cor. 12:14–13:10 In final preparation for his third visit (12:14; 13:1), Paul commends his apostleship one last time (12:14–21) and challenges the rebellious to test the genuineness of their professed faith (13:1–10).

2 Corinthians Fact #8: Problems in Corinth

Fact: Problems in Corinth

Study Notes

2 Cor. 13:11 Brothers here is a generic reference to both men and women (see ESV Preface: Translation Principles and Style). Paul also speaks of the Corinthians as “brothers” in the first two sections of the letter. There he primarily addressed those who were repentant (see 1:8 and 8:1). In chs. 10–13, Paul does not address those who are rebellious as “brothers.” Now, in closing the letter, Paul again uses this loving expression to address the entire church. This indicates his hope that they truly will be “brothers and sisters” in Christ as a result of their right response to his letter (13:6–10).

Study Notes

2 Cor. 13:12–13 Greet. . . . All the saints greet. These two greetings stress the unity of the church, local and universal. with a holy kiss. Usually reserved for special reunions among family members or formal greetings. An entire group practicing this public kiss was unique to the early church. It signified their mutual acceptance as a family. See note on 1 Cor. 16:20.

Study Notes

2 Cor. 13:11–14 Closing Greetings. Paul highlights the important themes he has covered. As in 1 Corinthians (see 1 Cor. 16:13–14), he also summarizes the central conclusions of this letter with five commands.

2 Cor. 13:14 This is the only Trinitarian benediction in Paul’s letters. It stresses that grace, love, and fellowship with one another come from God in Christ through the Spirit. you all. A final emphasis on the unity of the reconciled church, brought about by God himself, one of the main goals of Paul’s letter (1:7; 5:18–6:2; 7:2–4; 12:19).

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The Sufficiency of God in 2 Corinthians

2:16	Who is sufficient for these things?
3:5	Not that we are sufficient in ourselves . . .
3:5	but our sufficiency is from God
12:9	“My grace is sufficient for you . . .”

The Setting of 2 Corinthians

c. A.D. 55–56

Introduction to 2 Corinthians

Timeline

Author, Date, and Recipients

Theme

Purpose

Key Themes

Paul’s suffering imitates the cross of Christ. Those who reject him because he suffers are “false apostles” and “servants of Satan” (11:13–15).
Paul is a servant of the new covenant (3:6). His ministry and message of the cross mediates the Spirit of the living God and God’s righteousness to believers (3:3, 6–9; 5:14–15, 21).
Endurance through difficulty and Christlike behavior are made possible by the grace of God and are modeled by Paul himself. These qualities are the greatest display of God’s presence, power, and glory in this fallen world (1:12–14; 6:14–7:1; 12:7–10; 13:4).
The Spirit transforms believers into the image of God, which is seen in Christ. This new creation is characterized by God’s righteousness. Believers therefore embody the new creation of the new covenant by living for the sake of others. This is made possible because believers are reconciled with God through the cross (3:18; 5:15, 17–21).
Repentance expresses itself in holiness. This is a purity-producing love for God and his church and a unity-creating love for one’s neighbor (6:14–7:1; chs. 8–9).
Christ, as Savior, is also the universal Judge. He will judge all people according to their deeds. The Spirit transforms those in whom he dwells as a guarantee of the “eternal weight of glory” to come for believers at the resurrection (1:22; 3:18; 5:5, 9–11).

Outline

Paul’s Defense of His Ministry as an Apostle (1:1–7:16)
Paul’s Appeal to the Repentant Church Regarding the Collection (8:1–9:15)
Paul’s Appeal to the Rebellious Minority in Corinth (10:1–13:10)
Closing Greetings (13:11–14)

The Setting of 2 Corinthians

c. A.D. 55–56

The Global Message of 2 Corinthians

Paul’s second letter to the Corinthians unlocks one of the great secrets of Christian life and ministry to believers all around the globe: God’s power is channeled through human weakness.

Second Corinthians and Redemptive History

Universal Themes in 2 Corinthians

The Global Message of 2 Corinthians for Today

The letter of 2 Corinthians provides rich comfort and hope for believers today around the world.

2 Corinthians Fact #1: Amen

Fact: Amen

Revelation Fact #16: Benedictions